{"content_id":"6kcxcib4ko","slug":"black-death-england-peasant-recovery","locale":"en","schema_type":"Article","category":"case_study","category_name":"Case Study","title":"English Peasants' Recovery After the Black Death","summary":"In England after the Black Death, labor shortages changed wages and land contracts. However, initial price rises and recurring outbreaks delayed the recovery of living standards, and the gains varied by type of employment.","sponsorship_disclosure":null,"affiliate_disclosure":null,"commerce_disclosure":null,"author":{"name":"Injoys Editorial Team","url":"https://injoys.com/ko/about"},"key_points":["The 1349 Ordinance of Labourers and the 1351 Statute of Labourers were measures to control labor in response to shortages.","Even when cash wages rose, rising food prices could weaken purchasing power.","Competition to secure workers and tenants encouraged the spread of contractual leases and the weakening of serfdom.","The new equilibrium in the mid-1390s is Mark Bailey's interpretation and does not mean that the population had fully recovered.","Research on women hired on annual contracts shows that improvements in working conditions were not the same for every group."],"content_markdown":"After the Black Death struck in 1348, English peasants faced labour shortages and rising prices. Competition to attract workers and changes in tenancy arrangements altered their livelihoods. This process is remembered not as immediate prosperity but as a shift that weakened serfdom.\n\nThis article draws on the UK National Archives' records of the Statute of Labourers, checked in October 2026.\n\n## Timeline of Changes in England After the Black Death\n\nEngland's recovery involved decades of adjustment after the first outbreak. Legislation to control labour appeared early in this process. Changes in living conditions and land relations emerged over a longer period.\n\n| Period | Events and changes | Sources |\n|---|---|---|\n| 1348 | The Black Death begins to spread in England | UK National Archives, Plague |\n| 1349 | The Ordinance of Labourers controls wages and employment | UK National Archives, Plague |\n| 1351 | The Statute of Labourers supplements the earlier ordinance | Statute of Labourers, reference C 74/1 |\n| 1361-1362 | Another outbreak of the Black Death prolongs labour shortages | Mark Bailey, study of labour legislation enforcement |\n| 1381 | Poll tax collection triggers the Peasants' Revolt | London Museum, account of the Peasants' Revolt |\n| Mid-1390s | Bailey interprets this as the period when a new economic equilibrium took shape | University of Oxford Faculty of History research commentary |\n\n## Why Did Living Conditions Not Improve Immediately When Labour Became Scarce?\n\nLabour shortages put upward pressure on wages but also disrupted food supplies. Bailey explains that early increases in food prices squeezed real wages. In the 1360s, abnormal weather and livestock diseases also hindered economic adjustment. This explanation follows the [University of Oxford Faculty of History commentary](https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/society-economy-and-law-fourteenth-century-england).\n\nNominal wages are wages expressed in money. Real wages represent the amount of goods and services that money can buy. Rising wages alone therefore cannot establish whether living conditions improved.\n\n| Measure | Meaning | Limitations when assessing living standards |\n|---|---|---|\n| Nominal wages | Payment for labour expressed in money | Do not account for rising prices |\n| Real wages | The purchasing power of wages after accounting for prices | Do not show the actual number of days employed |\n| Household income and expenditure | The whole family's income and financial burdens | Agricultural income beyond wages and family size must also be checked |\n\n## Do Peasant and Serf Mean the Same Thing?\n\nPeasant refers to a livelihood, while serf refers to legal status and a relationship of dependence. A tenant farmer rents someone else's land to cultivate it. Labour services are work provided to a lord as an obligation attached to holding land or similar arrangements.\n\nTreating all peasants as serfs therefore obscures the causes of change. Someone who rented land could also earn wages on another farm. Labour and land markets were connected within peasant households.\n\n## The Difference Between the 1349 Ordinance and the 1351 Statute of Labourers\n\nThe 1349 ordinance came first, and the **1351 Statute of Labourers** supplemented it. Neither measure was intended to expand workers' rights. They were controls aimed at maintaining existing employment arrangements amid labour shortages. The [UK National Archives' introduction](https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/explore-the-collection/explore-by-time-period/early-modern/plague/) explains this relationship.\n\n| Category | 1349 Ordinance of Labourers | 1351 Statute of Labourers |\n|---|---|---|\n| Circumstances of enactment | Emergency response during the outbreak | Parliament supplements the earlier measure after the outbreak |\n| Wage regulation | Sets ceilings based on levels before the outbreak | Makes wage controls more specific |\n| Employment and movement | Compels employment and controls workers' movement | Supplements rules on contracts and employment practices |\n| Purpose | Secures scarce labour for employers | Strengthens controls through legislation |\n\nThe National Archives gives C 74/1 as the reference for the Statute of Labourers. The regulations also included restrictions on poaching employees by offering better terms. Wages set by law must be distinguished from wages actually paid.\n\n## Was the Statute of Labourers Actually Enforced?\n\nIt was enforced, but the intensity varied between courts. Bailey's research identifies cases of punishment in royal courts. By contrast, public enforcement was rare in the manorial and town courts studied. This is a central distinction in the [study of labour legislation enforcement](https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.13355).\n\nThe law was designed to favour annual employment contracts. Employers sought a reliable supply of workers for periods such as the harvest. However, local employers did not uniformly cooperate with enforcement.\n\n- Continuing labour shortages worked against efforts to keep wages low.\n- Limited enforcement by local courts restricted the regulations' effects.\n- Private lawsuits over unpaid wages and breaches of contract increased.\n\nThese findings should not be read as meaning that the law had no effect. Punishments and lawsuits could influence workers' choices. However, the law's aims did not match actual developments in the labour market.\n\n## Competition for Tenants and Changes in Land Contracts\n\nLords needed to secure both workers and people to rent their land. Bailey explains the expansion of contractual tenancies and falling rents as results of this competition. Rent is payment for the use of land.\n\nUnder contractual tenancies, terms such as duration and payment became more important. Freemen and migrants also took up former serf holdings. Bailey sees this as weakening the link between status and landholding.\n\n| Position | Improved conditions | Remaining constraints |\n|---|---|---|\n| Wage labourers | Competition among employers to secure workers | Wage ceilings and restrictions on movement |\n| Tenant farmers | Greater scope to negotiate tenancy terms | Rent and contractual obligations |\n| Lords and landowners | Management of land through tenancies | Tenant shortages and downward pressure on rents |\n\nThe movement of serfs did not necessarily mean complete freedom. A study of manors in Essex examines both migration and lords' responses. The actual strength of restrictions on movement remains debated. This [study of migration across manors](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/servile-migration-and-seigniorial-reaction-in-england-the-serfs-of-great-waltham-and-high-easter-essex-c-13361361/FEE7266397005ACF06410A59D9CB33AD) shows these local differences.\n\n## How Did Recovery Differ Between Peasant Households and Towns?\n\nPeasants' living standards depended not only on wages but also on family size and obligations to lords. Kitsikopoulos used a model to analyse peasant households from 1350-1500. The study identifies reductions in family size and obligations to lords as major factors in improving living conditions. This is the explanation offered in the [study of the peasant economy](https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714003952).\n\nThese findings are not figures compiled from the actual accounts of every household. They are conclusions from a model comparing possible income and expenditure. Their significance lies in showing why rising wages alone cannot adequately explain changes in peasants' lives.\n\nIn towns, migration was one route to population recovery. A study of Nottingham identifies arrivals in periods including the early 1350s. This is why recovery in individual towns must be distinguished from national population recovery. The [Nottingham population study](https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/understanding-late-medieval-population-change-in-english-towns-an-alternative-approach/6C7F979155956764979A43BEE82AA00A) uses both documentary and archaeological evidence.\n\nMigration to towns was also a route to jobs outside agriculture. Economic history research examines cases of lower barriers to entry in some occupations. However, this cannot be treated as a change common to all towns and trades. This point is discussed in the [study of the English economy](https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/english-economy-following-black-death/wp080.pdf).\n\n## Uneven Recovery Revealed by Women's Annual Employment\n\nWomen workers' experiences cannot be explained by rising daily wages alone. Humphries and Weisdorf distinguish between women's daily wages and pay under annual contracts. They interpret their findings as showing that women in annual employment did not share equally in prosperity after the Black Death. The evidence comes from the [study of women's wages](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050715000662).\n\n| Type of employment | Features of pay | What to check when comparing |\n|---|---|---|\n| Daily and short-term employment | Paid daily or weekly wages | Periods without work |\n| Annual employment | Paid in cash and through benefits such as board and lodging | The value of payment in kind and continuity of employment |\n\nHigh daily wages do not guarantee high annual income. Conversely, continuity in annual employment does not necessarily mean adequate pay. Distinguishing by gender and contract type allows a more accurate assessment of who benefited from recovery.\n\n## The Relationship Between the 1381 Peasants' Revolt and the Weakening of Serfdom\n\nPoll tax collection was the immediate trigger for the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. A poll tax is a tax levied on each person. The rebels' demands included the abolition of serfdom. This is documented in the [London Museum account](https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/london-stories/how-peasants-revolt-rocked-medieval-london/).\n\nThe revolt therefore cannot easily be explained by wages alone. Conflicts over tax burdens and labour controls both played a part. Bailey particularly emphasises resistance to the expansion of state power.\n\nNor should the outbreak of the revolt and the disappearance of serfdom be treated as the same event. Changes in land contracts and labour relations were already underway before the revolt. It is more accurate to distinguish the revolt as an event that exposed those conflicts.\n\n## What Was the New Equilibrium of the Mid-1390s?\n\nBailey sees the **mid-1390s** as the period when a new economic equilibrium took shape. His interpretation is that price fluctuations diminished and real wages and incomes stabilised. This is presented in the [University of Oxford Faculty of History commentary](https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/society-economy-and-law-fourteenth-century-england).\n\nThe new equilibrium does not mean that the population returned to its level before the outbreak. England's population continued to decline for a long time afterward. Stability in economic relations and the restoration of population size are different measures.\n\n## Records and Interpretations\n\nRecords show the rules and transactions of the time, but they do not reproduce society as a whole exactly. Laws set out the behaviour the state demanded. Account books and court records allow us to examine how those demands worked in practice.\n\n### What the Records Establish\n\nThe Statute of Labourers shows a system intended to control wages and employment. Wage accounts also record forms of payment other than cash. Court records preserve some punishments and contract disputes.\n\n- C 74/1: A key primary source for examining the 1351 Statute of Labourers.\n- Account books: Sources for checking payments in money, grain and other forms.\n- Court records: Sources for checking the enforcement of rules and disputes.\n\n### Explanations Broadly Shared by the Studies\n\nSeveral studies share the explanation that labour shortages after the Black Death changed employment relations. Long-term improvements in wages and living conditions are also widely discussed. However, the timing and scale of improvement vary depending on what is measured.\n\n### Issues Still Under Debate\n\nThe precise purchasing power of medieval wages depends on how it is calculated. Claridge at LSE highlights the problem of valuing payment in kind. How grain, board and lodging are valued changes the results. The [LSE research commentary](https://www.lse.ac.uk/research/research-for-the-world/economics/its-not-just-about-the-money-a-reappraisal-of-medieval-english-agricultural-wages) explains this issue.\n\nThe pace at which serfdom weakened and the strength of controls are also debated. Bailey's interpretation of rapid weakening cannot be treated as a settled conclusion shared by all scholars. Regional records must be read alongside evidence for different types of employment.\n\n## What This Case Means for Readers Today\n\nThis case raises the question of how to measure recovery after a disaster. One perspective it offers is to distinguish between recovery indicators. Wage amounts, purchasing power and household circumstances can show different changes.\n\n| Question to examine | Indicators to distinguish |\n|---|---|\n| Did payment for labour rise? | Nominal wages and real wages |\n| Did household circumstances improve? | Days employed, payment in kind and family burdens |\n| Did the economy return to its previous state? | Population size and stability in the terms of transactions |\n| Did control policies work? | Legal provisions and actual enforcement |\n\nThese distinctions cannot be applied unchanged to a particular disaster today. England's outcomes were shaped by the land market and legal institutions of the time. Nor do they mean that the same population shock produced the same results throughout Europe.\n\n## Frequently Asked Questions\n\n### Did Peasants Become Wealthy Immediately After the Black Death?\n\nIt is difficult to describe this as an immediate improvement in living conditions. Early on, rising food prices squeezed the purchasing power of wages. Later improvements also varied by type of employment and household circumstances.\n\n### Was the 1351 Statute of Labourers a Minimum Wage Law?\n\nIt was not a law guaranteeing a minimum wage. It was a regulation intended to curb wage increases and secure labour. Workers' movement and employment contracts were also subject to control.\n\n### Does the Weakening of Serfdom Mean the Same Thing as a Free Labour Market?\n\nThese are not the same change. Even as dependence on lords based on legal status weakened, state controls over labour could remain. Legal penalties for breaches of contract also operated separately.\n\n### Why Do Studies Calculate Medieval Wages Differently?\n\nBecause cash and payment in kind must be assessed together. Converting daily wages into annual income also requires the actual number of days employed. Differences in sources and conversion assumptions change the estimates.","content_html":"\u003cp\u003eAfter the Black Death struck in 1348, English peasants faced labour shortages and rising prices. Competition to attract workers and changes in tenancy arrangements altered their livelihoods. This process is remembered not as immediate prosperity but as a shift that weakened serfdom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article draws on the UK National Archives' records of the Statute of Labourers, checked in October 2026.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#timeline-of-changes-in-england-after-the-black-death\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"timeline-of-changes-in-england-after-the-black-death\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eTimeline of Changes in England After the Black Death\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEngland's recovery involved decades of adjustment after the first outbreak. Legislation to control labour appeared early in this process. Changes in living conditions and land relations emerged over a longer period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003ePeriod\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eEvents and changes\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSources\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003e1348\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003eThe Black Death begins to spread in England\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eUK National Archives, Plague\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003e1349\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003eThe Ordinance of Labourers controls wages and employment\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eUK National Archives, Plague\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003e1351\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003eThe Statute of Labourers supplements the earlier ordinance\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eStatute of Labourers, reference C 74/1\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003e1361-1362\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003eAnother outbreak of the Black Death prolongs labour shortages\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eMark Bailey, study of labour legislation enforcement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003e1381\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003ePoll tax collection triggers the Peasants' Revolt\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eLondon Museum, account of the Peasants' Revolt\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Period\"\u003eMid-1390s\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Events and changes\"\u003eBailey interprets this as the period when a new economic equilibrium took shape\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Sources\"\u003eUniversity of Oxford Faculty of History research commentary\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#why-did-living-conditions-not-improve-immediately-when-labour-became-scarce\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"why-did-living-conditions-not-improve-immediately-when-labour-became-scarce\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhy Did Living Conditions Not Improve Immediately When Labour Became Scarce?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLabour shortages put upward pressure on wages but also disrupted food supplies. Bailey explains that early increases in food prices squeezed real wages. In the 1360s, abnormal weather and livestock diseases also hindered economic adjustment. This explanation follows the \u003ca href=\"https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/society-economy-and-law-fourteenth-century-england\"\u003eUniversity of Oxford Faculty of History commentary\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNominal wages are wages expressed in money. Real wages represent the amount of goods and services that money can buy. Rising wages alone therefore cannot establish whether living conditions improved.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMeasure\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMeaning\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eLimitations when assessing living standards\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Measure\"\u003eNominal wages\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003ePayment for labour expressed in money\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Limitations when assessing living standards\"\u003eDo not account for rising prices\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Measure\"\u003eReal wages\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eThe purchasing power of wages after accounting for prices\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Limitations when assessing living standards\"\u003eDo not show the actual number of days employed\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Measure\"\u003eHousehold income and expenditure\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eThe whole family's income and financial burdens\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Limitations when assessing living standards\"\u003eAgricultural income beyond wages and family size must also be checked\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#do-peasant-and-serf-mean-the-same-thing\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"do-peasant-and-serf-mean-the-same-thing\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDo Peasant and Serf Mean the Same Thing?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeasant refers to a livelihood, while serf refers to legal status and a relationship of dependence. A tenant farmer rents someone else's land to cultivate it. Labour services are work provided to a lord as an obligation attached to holding land or similar arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTreating all peasants as serfs therefore obscures the causes of change. Someone who rented land could also earn wages on another farm. Labour and land markets were connected within peasant households.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-difference-between-the-1349-ordinance-and-the-1351-statute-of-labourers\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-difference-between-the-1349-ordinance-and-the-1351-statute-of-labourers\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe Difference Between the 1349 Ordinance and the 1351 Statute of Labourers\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 1349 ordinance came first, and the \u003cstrong\u003e1351 Statute of Labourers\u003c/strong\u003e supplemented it. Neither measure was intended to expand workers' rights. They were controls aimed at maintaining existing employment arrangements amid labour shortages. The \u003ca href=\"https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/explore-the-collection/explore-by-time-period/early-modern/plague/\"\u003eUK National Archives' introduction\u003c/a\u003e explains this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eCategory\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003e1349 Ordinance of Labourers\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003e1351 Statute of Labourers\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eCircumstances of enactment\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1349 Ordinance of Labourers\"\u003eEmergency response during the outbreak\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1351 Statute of Labourers\"\u003eParliament supplements the earlier measure after the outbreak\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eWage regulation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1349 Ordinance of Labourers\"\u003eSets ceilings based on levels before the outbreak\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1351 Statute of Labourers\"\u003eMakes wage controls more specific\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eEmployment and movement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1349 Ordinance of Labourers\"\u003eCompels employment and controls workers' movement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1351 Statute of Labourers\"\u003eSupplements rules on contracts and employment practices\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003ePurpose\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1349 Ordinance of Labourers\"\u003eSecures scarce labour for employers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"1351 Statute of Labourers\"\u003eStrengthens controls through legislation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National Archives gives C 74/1 as the reference for the Statute of Labourers. The regulations also included restrictions on poaching employees by offering better terms. Wages set by law must be distinguished from wages actually paid.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-the-statute-of-labourers-actually-enforced\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-the-statute-of-labourers-actually-enforced\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas the Statute of Labourers Actually Enforced?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was enforced, but the intensity varied between courts. Bailey's research identifies cases of punishment in royal courts. By contrast, public enforcement was rare in the manorial and town courts studied. This is a central distinction in the \u003ca href=\"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.13355\"\u003estudy of labour legislation enforcement\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe law was designed to favour annual employment contracts. Employers sought a reliable supply of workers for periods such as the harvest. However, local employers did not uniformly cooperate with enforcement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eContinuing labour shortages worked against efforts to keep wages low.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLimited enforcement by local courts restricted the regulations' effects.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrivate lawsuits over unpaid wages and breaches of contract increased.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings should not be read as meaning that the law had no effect. Punishments and lawsuits could influence workers' choices. However, the law's aims did not match actual developments in the labour market.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#competition-for-tenants-and-changes-in-land-contracts\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"competition-for-tenants-and-changes-in-land-contracts\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eCompetition for Tenants and Changes in Land Contracts\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLords needed to secure both workers and people to rent their land. Bailey explains the expansion of contractual tenancies and falling rents as results of this competition. Rent is payment for the use of land.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUnder contractual tenancies, terms such as duration and payment became more important. Freemen and migrants also took up former serf holdings. Bailey sees this as weakening the link between status and landholding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003ePosition\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eImproved conditions\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eRemaining constraints\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Position\"\u003eWage labourers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Improved conditions\"\u003eCompetition among employers to secure workers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining constraints\"\u003eWage ceilings and restrictions on movement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Position\"\u003eTenant farmers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Improved conditions\"\u003eGreater scope to negotiate tenancy terms\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining constraints\"\u003eRent and contractual obligations\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Position\"\u003eLords and landowners\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Improved conditions\"\u003eManagement of land through tenancies\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining constraints\"\u003eTenant shortages and downward pressure on rents\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe movement of serfs did not necessarily mean complete freedom. A study of manors in Essex examines both migration and lords' responses. The actual strength of restrictions on movement remains debated. This \u003ca href=\"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/servile-migration-and-seigniorial-reaction-in-england-the-serfs-of-great-waltham-and-high-easter-essex-c-13361361/FEE7266397005ACF06410A59D9CB33AD\"\u003estudy of migration across manors\u003c/a\u003e shows these local differences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#how-did-recovery-differ-between-peasant-households-and-towns\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"how-did-recovery-differ-between-peasant-households-and-towns\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eHow Did Recovery Differ Between Peasant Households and Towns?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePeasants' living standards depended not only on wages but also on family size and obligations to lords. Kitsikopoulos used a model to analyse peasant households from 1350-1500. The study identifies reductions in family size and obligations to lords as major factors in improving living conditions. This is the explanation offered in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714003952\"\u003estudy of the peasant economy\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings are not figures compiled from the actual accounts of every household. They are conclusions from a model comparing possible income and expenditure. Their significance lies in showing why rising wages alone cannot adequately explain changes in peasants' lives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn towns, migration was one route to population recovery. A study of Nottingham identifies arrivals in periods including the early 1350s. This is why recovery in individual towns must be distinguished from national population recovery. The \u003ca href=\"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/understanding-late-medieval-population-change-in-english-towns-an-alternative-approach/6C7F979155956764979A43BEE82AA00A\"\u003eNottingham population study\u003c/a\u003e uses both documentary and archaeological evidence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMigration to towns was also a route to jobs outside agriculture. Economic history research examines cases of lower barriers to entry in some occupations. However, this cannot be treated as a change common to all towns and trades. This point is discussed in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/english-economy-following-black-death/wp080.pdf\"\u003estudy of the English economy\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#uneven-recovery-revealed-by-womens-annual-employment\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"uneven-recovery-revealed-by-womens-annual-employment\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eUneven Recovery Revealed by Women's Annual Employment\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWomen workers' experiences cannot be explained by rising daily wages alone. Humphries and Weisdorf distinguish between women's daily wages and pay under annual contracts. They interpret their findings as showing that women in annual employment did not share equally in prosperity after the Black Death. The evidence comes from the \u003ca href=\"https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050715000662\"\u003estudy of women's wages\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eType of employment\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eFeatures of pay\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhat to check when comparing\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of employment\"\u003eDaily and short-term employment\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Features of pay\"\u003ePaid daily or weekly wages\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What to check when comparing\"\u003ePeriods without work\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of employment\"\u003eAnnual employment\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Features of pay\"\u003ePaid in cash and through benefits such as board and lodging\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What to check when comparing\"\u003eThe value of payment in kind and continuity of employment\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh daily wages do not guarantee high annual income. Conversely, continuity in annual employment does not necessarily mean adequate pay. Distinguishing by gender and contract type allows a more accurate assessment of who benefited from recovery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-relationship-between-the-1381-peasants-revolt-and-the-weakening-of-serfdom\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-relationship-between-the-1381-peasants-revolt-and-the-weakening-of-serfdom\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe Relationship Between the 1381 Peasants' Revolt and the Weakening of Serfdom\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePoll tax collection was the immediate trigger for the Peasants' Revolt of 1381. A poll tax is a tax levied on each person. The rebels' demands included the abolition of serfdom. This is documented in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/london-stories/how-peasants-revolt-rocked-medieval-london/\"\u003eLondon Museum account\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe revolt therefore cannot easily be explained by wages alone. Conflicts over tax burdens and labour controls both played a part. Bailey particularly emphasises resistance to the expansion of state power.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNor should the outbreak of the revolt and the disappearance of serfdom be treated as the same event. Changes in land contracts and labour relations were already underway before the revolt. It is more accurate to distinguish the revolt as an event that exposed those conflicts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-was-the-new-equilibrium-of-the-mid-1390s\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-was-the-new-equilibrium-of-the-mid-1390s\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat Was the New Equilibrium of the Mid-1390s?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBailey sees the \u003cstrong\u003emid-1390s\u003c/strong\u003e as the period when a new economic equilibrium took shape. His interpretation is that price fluctuations diminished and real wages and incomes stabilised. This is presented in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/society-economy-and-law-fourteenth-century-england\"\u003eUniversity of Oxford Faculty of History commentary\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe new equilibrium does not mean that the population returned to its level before the outbreak. England's population continued to decline for a long time afterward. Stability in economic relations and the restoration of population size are different measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#records-and-interpretations\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"records-and-interpretations\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eRecords and Interpretations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecords show the rules and transactions of the time, but they do not reproduce society as a whole exactly. Laws set out the behaviour the state demanded. Account books and court records allow us to examine how those demands worked in practice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-the-records-establish\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-the-records-establish\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat the Records Establish\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Statute of Labourers shows a system intended to control wages and employment. Wage accounts also record forms of payment other than cash. Court records preserve some punishments and contract disputes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eC 74/1: A key primary source for examining the 1351 Statute of Labourers.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAccount books: Sources for checking payments in money, grain and other forms.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCourt records: Sources for checking the enforcement of rules and disputes.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#explanations-broadly-shared-by-the-studies\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"explanations-broadly-shared-by-the-studies\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eExplanations Broadly Shared by the Studies\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies share the explanation that labour shortages after the Black Death changed employment relations. Long-term improvements in wages and living conditions are also widely discussed. However, the timing and scale of improvement vary depending on what is measured.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#issues-still-under-debate\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"issues-still-under-debate\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eIssues Still Under Debate\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe precise purchasing power of medieval wages depends on how it is calculated. Claridge at LSE highlights the problem of valuing payment in kind. How grain, board and lodging are valued changes the results. The \u003ca href=\"https://www.lse.ac.uk/research/research-for-the-world/economics/its-not-just-about-the-money-a-reappraisal-of-medieval-english-agricultural-wages\"\u003eLSE research commentary\u003c/a\u003e explains this issue.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe pace at which serfdom weakened and the strength of controls are also debated. Bailey's interpretation of rapid weakening cannot be treated as a settled conclusion shared by all scholars. Regional records must be read alongside evidence for different types of employment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-this-case-means-for-readers-today\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-this-case-means-for-readers-today\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat This Case Means for Readers Today\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis case raises the question of how to measure recovery after a disaster. One perspective it offers is to distinguish between recovery indicators. Wage amounts, purchasing power and household circumstances can show different changes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eQuestion to examine\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eIndicators to distinguish\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Question to examine\"\u003eDid payment for labour rise?\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Indicators to distinguish\"\u003eNominal wages and real wages\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Question to examine\"\u003eDid household circumstances improve?\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Indicators to distinguish\"\u003eDays employed, payment in kind and family burdens\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Question to examine\"\u003eDid the economy return to its previous state?\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Indicators to distinguish\"\u003ePopulation size and stability in the terms of transactions\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Question to examine\"\u003eDid control policies work?\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Indicators to distinguish\"\u003eLegal provisions and actual enforcement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese distinctions cannot be applied unchanged to a particular disaster today. England's outcomes were shaped by the land market and legal institutions of the time. Nor do they mean that the same population shock produced the same results throughout Europe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#frequently-asked-questions\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"frequently-asked-questions\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFrequently Asked Questions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-peasants-become-wealthy-immediately-after-the-black-death\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-peasants-become-wealthy-immediately-after-the-black-death\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid Peasants Become Wealthy Immediately After the Black Death?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is difficult to describe this as an immediate improvement in living conditions. Early on, rising food prices squeezed the purchasing power of wages. Later improvements also varied by type of employment and household circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-the-1351-statute-of-labourers-a-minimum-wage-law\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-the-1351-statute-of-labourers-a-minimum-wage-law\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas the 1351 Statute of Labourers a Minimum Wage Law?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt was not a law guaranteeing a minimum wage. It was a regulation intended to curb wage increases and secure labour. Workers' movement and employment contracts were also subject to control.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#does-the-weakening-of-serfdom-mean-the-same-thing-as-a-free-labour-market\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"does-the-weakening-of-serfdom-mean-the-same-thing-as-a-free-labour-market\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDoes the Weakening of Serfdom Mean the Same Thing as a Free Labour Market?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese are not the same change. Even as dependence on lords based on legal status weakened, state controls over labour could remain. Legal penalties for breaches of contract also operated separately.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#why-do-studies-calculate-medieval-wages-differently\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"why-do-studies-calculate-medieval-wages-differently\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhy Do Studies Calculate Medieval Wages Differently?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause cash and payment in kind must be assessed together. Converting daily wages into annual income also requires the actual number of days employed. Differences in sources and conversion assumptions change the estimates.\u003c/p\u003e\n","tags":["Prices","Labor Market","Lease","Black Death","Medieval history"],"faqs":[{"question":"Did life for English peasants improve immediately after the Black Death?","answer":"It is difficult to say that it improved immediately. Initial increases in food prices put pressure on the purchasing power of wages. Repeated outbreaks also delayed recovery."},{"question":"How did the Ordinance of Labourers of 1349 differ from the Statute of Labourers of 1351?","answer":"The ordinance of 1349 was a response to labor shortages during the outbreak. The Statute of Labourers of 1351 was Parliament's supplement to the earlier ordinance. Both aimed to control wages and employment."},{"question":"Was the Statute of Labourers of 1351 a law to protect workers?","answer":"It is difficult to see it as a worker protection law in the modern sense. It sought to help employers secure labor through wage caps and restrictions on movement. It was also designed to favor annual employment contracts."},{"question":"What is C 74/1, the reference number for the Statute of Labourers?","answer":"It is the reference number for the Statute of Labourers of 1351 presented by The National Archives in the UK. Images of the historical document and an explanation are available on the institution's Plague page."},{"question":"Was the Statute of Labourers never enforced?","answer":"There is evidence of enforcement in royal courts and elsewhere. However, Bailey's research found that official enforcement in manorial and town courts was limited. Whether it was enforced and whether it achieved its policy goals should be distinguished."},{"question":"Do peasant and serf mean the same thing?","answer":"A peasant is someone who makes a living mainly through agriculture. A serf is someone whose legal status makes them subject to a lord. Not all peasants had the same status or contractual terms."},{"question":"Why did labor shortages change land tenancy arrangements?","answer":"Lords also needed to secure tenants to cultivate the land. Competition to attract tenants encouraged adjustments to tenancy terms. The expansion of contractual tenancies weakened the link between landholding and legal status."},{"question":"Did female workers experience the same degree of wage growth?","answer":"It is not possible to generalize that their wages rose to the same extent. Research on women's wages shows differences between short-term and annual employment. One interpretation is that improvements in pay were more limited for women in annual employment."},{"question":"Did the Peasants' Revolt of 1381 abolish serfdom all at once?","answer":"It is difficult to describe it that way. The revolt included demands for the abolition of serfdom, but changes in land and labor relations were already underway. The revolt should be distinguished from the long-term weakening of the institution."},{"question":"Had the population recovered by the mid-1390s?","answer":"The new equilibrium Bailey describes does not mean that the population had fully recovered. It is an interpretation concerning economic stability in areas such as prices and incomes. Recovery in population size is a separate issue."},{"question":"Do higher daily wages necessarily mean better living standards over the year?","answer":"Not necessarily. The number of days actually worked and price levels must be considered together. Pay received in grain or room and board must also be included in the calculation."},{"question":"Can the changes in England be applied to Europe as a whole?","answer":"The same path cannot be generalized to all of Europe. Land markets, legal systems, and the conditions of lords' power differed by region. England is one historical case among them."}],"sources":[{"url":"https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/explore-the-collection/explore-by-time-period/early-modern/plague/","title":"UK National Archives, Plague: the 1351 Statute of Labourers C 74/1","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.history.ox.ac.uk/society-economy-and-law-fourteenth-century-england","title":"Oxford University Faculty of History, Mark Bailey’s Society, economy and the law in fourteenth-century England","type":"source"},{"url":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ehr.13355","title":"Mark Bailey, The implementation of national labour legislation in England after the Black Death, 1349-1400","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/714003952","title":"H. Kitsikopoulos, The Impact of the Black Death on Peasant Economy in England, 1350-1500","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.lse.ac.uk/research/research-for-the-world/economics/its-not-just-about-the-money-a-reappraisal-of-medieval-english-agricultural-wages","title":"LSE, Jordan Claridge’s reassessment of agricultural wages in medieval England","type":"source"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022050715000662","title":"Jane Humphries and Jacob Weisdorf, The Wages of Women in England, 1260-1850","type":"data_point"},{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/understanding-late-medieval-population-change-in-english-towns-an-alternative-approach/6C7F979155956764979A43BEE82AA00A","title":"Scott C. Lomax, Understanding late medieval population change in English towns: an alternative approach","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/continuity-and-change/article/servile-migration-and-seigniorial-reaction-in-england-the-serfs-of-great-waltham-and-high-easter-essex-c-13361361/FEE7266397005ACF06410A59D9CB33AD","title":"Servile migration and seigniorial reaction in England: a study of serf migration on Essex manors","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/documents/reports/english-economy-following-black-death/wp080.pdf","title":"The English Economy Following The Black Death, a 1982 economic history study","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.londonmuseum.org.uk/collections/london-stories/how-peasants-revolt-rocked-medieval-london/","title":"London Museum, How the Peasants’ Revolt rocked medieval London","type":"source"}],"images":[{"id":2181,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MzM1NTAsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--1152be0bf95c7f7bdcb7662865a9310f57627acf/ai-1d00dadf.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"진흙투성이 마을길 옆 초가지붕 가판대에서 곡물을 파는 상인과 돈주머니를 든 손님","caption":"흑사병 이후 화폐 임금이 올라도 식료품 가격 상승으로 구매력은 약해질 수 있었다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"A grain seller and a customer holding a purse at a thatched stall beside a muddy village lane.","caption":"After the Black Death, rising food prices could erode purchasing power even as money wages increased.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"ぬかるんだ村道沿いの茅葺きの露店で穀物を売る商人と、財布を手にした客","caption":"黒死病後、貨幣賃金が上がっても食料価格の上昇によって購買力が低下することがあった。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Un vendedor de grano y un cliente con una bolsa de dinero junto a una calle embarrada de una aldea.","caption":"Tras la peste negra, el alza de los alimentos podía reducir el poder adquisitivo aunque subieran los salarios monetarios.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Penjual biji-bijian dan pembeli yang memegang kantong uang di kios beratap jerami di tepi jalan desa berlumpur.","caption":"Setelah Wabah Hitam, kenaikan harga pangan dapat melemahkan daya beli meski upah uang meningkat.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Vendedor de grãos e cliente com uma bolsa de dinheiro numa banca junto a uma rua lamacenta de aldeia.","caption":"Após a Peste Negra, a alta dos alimentos podia reduzir o poder de compra mesmo com o aumento dos salários em dinheiro.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"泥濘村道旁的茅草棚攤位上，穀物商人正賣糧，一名顧客手持錢袋等候。","caption":"黑死病後，即使貨幣工資上升，糧食價格上漲仍可能削弱購買力。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Getreidehändler und Kunde mit Geldbeutel an einem Stand neben einer schlammigen Dorfgasse.","caption":"Nach dem Schwarzen Tod konnten steigende Lebensmittelpreise die Kaufkraft trotz höherer Geldlöhne schwächen.","description":null}}},{"id":2182,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MzM1NTYsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--3bcef4cd92eff21f6338d904272520fa3c125926/ai-f1469487.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"잉글랜드 장원의 목조 현관 아래 문서가 놓인 탁자에 모인 사람들과 멀리 밭에서 일하는 농민들","caption":"노동자와 소작인을 확보하려는 경쟁은 계약형 임대차 확대와 농노제 약화를 촉진했다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"People gather around documents on a table at an English manor, with farmworkers in the fields beyond.","caption":"Competition for workers and tenants encouraged contractual tenancies and weakened serfdom.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"イングランドの荘園で、木造のひさしの下にある書類を広げた卓を囲む人々と、遠くの畑で働く農民たち","caption":"労働者と小作人を確保する競争は、契約に基づく土地賃貸の拡大と農奴制の弱体化を促した。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Personas reunidas ante documentos en una mesa de un señorío inglés, con campesinos trabajando al fondo.","caption":"La competencia por trabajadores y arrendatarios impulsó los arriendos por contrato y debilitó la servidumbre.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Orang-orang mengelilingi meja berisi dokumen di manor Inggris, dengan petani bekerja di ladang di kejauhan.","caption":"Persaingan mendapatkan pekerja dan penyewa mendorong perluasan sewa tanah berbasis kontrak dan melemahkan perhambaan tani.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Pessoas reunidas junto a documentos numa mesa de um senhorio inglês, com camponeses trabalhando ao fundo.","caption":"A concorrência por trabalhadores e arrendatários ampliou os arrendamentos por contrato e enfraqueceu a servidão.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"英格蘭莊園的木造門廊下，人們圍著放有文件的桌子，遠處有農民在田間耕作","caption":"爭取勞工與佃農的競爭促進了契約租佃的擴展，並削弱了農奴制。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Menschen an einem Tisch mit Dokumenten auf einem englischen Gutshof, dahinter Feldarbeiter bei der Arbeit.","caption":"Der Wettbewerb um Arbeitskräfte und Pächter förderte vertragliche Pachtverhältnisse und schwächte die Leibeigenschaft.","description":null}}}],"published_at":"2026-10-27T12:19:44+09:00","updated_at":"2026-10-27T12:19:44+09:00","license":"cc_by","translation_status":"reviewed","available_locales":["ko","en","ja","es"],"data_locales":["ko","en","ja","es","id","pt","zh-hant","de"],"url":"https://injoys.com/en/articles/black-death-england-peasant-recovery"}