{"content_id":"dxc3h3mlh4","slug":"gwangmu-reform-land-survey-certificates-background-results","locale":"en","schema_type":"Article","category":"knowledge_base","category_name":"Knowledge Base","title":"Gwangmu Reform Land Survey and Deeds: Background and Results","summary":"The Korean Empire undertook the land survey and title deed project to update outdated land records and secure a fiscal base. Surveys and deed issuance proceeded in some areas, but the project was not completed nationwide. Records of surveying errors and re-surveys also remain.","sponsorship_disclosure":null,"affiliate_disclosure":null,"commerce_disclosure":null,"author":{"name":"Injoys Editorial Team","url":"https://injoys.com/ko/about"},"key_points":["Land surveying involved measuring land and investigating ownership and tax obligations.","The establishment of Yangji Amun in 1898 marked a turning point, creating an agency dedicated to land surveys.","In 1902, Yangji Amun was merged into Jigye Amun, putting surveys and deed issuance under one agency.","The 1903 records of re-surveys in Suwon and Yongin show why survey coverage must be distinguished from survey accuracy.","The land survey and title deed project was not completed nationwide amid the 1904 Russo-Japanese War and Japanese interference."],"content_markdown":"The Gwangmu Reform was a modernization policy pursued by the Korean Empire after 1897. Facing pressure from foreign powers and financial difficulties, the empire undertook land surveys and institutional reforms. The yangjeon and jigye projects were not completed nationwide, but they marked a shift in land administration.\n\nThis article follows the annals published by the National Institute of Korean History and explanations from the National Archives of Korea, checked in October 2026.\n\n## Why Land Surveys Were Needed\n\nThe Korean Empire inherited registers that did not accurately reflect conditions on the ground. Yang'an were government registers compiled to tax land. They had not been updated adequately for a long time, making it difficult to identify landowners accurately.\n\nDocuments recording private land sales also had problems. Private documents were vulnerable to forgery and alteration. The system for obtaining official approval also had significant barriers for ordinary farmers. The National Archives of Korea's explanation of the “Farmland System” describes these weaknesses in proving rights. [National Archives of Korea, “Farmland System”](https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003652\u0026pageFlag=A\u0026sitePage=1-2-1)\n\nThe government needed tax revenue to support rising expenditures. Farmers demanded that unfair taxation be corrected. After the opening of ports, the need to control land purchases by foreigners also grew. Land surveys thus addressed both financial and rights-related issues.\n\n| Problem at the time | What the surveys sought to establish | Policy goal |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Discrepancies between registers and actual land conditions | Land location, size, and use | Improve taxation records |\n| Unclear ownership and tax obligations | Owners and taxpayers | Establish rights and tax obligations |\n| Complaints about unfair taxation | Omitted or incorrectly assessed taxable property | Correct tax assessment errors |\n| Growing land purchases by foreigners | Land purchases and transfers | Strengthen state control over land |\n\n## The Difference Between Yangjeon, Yang'an, and Jigye\n\nYangjeon was the act of surveying land, while yang'an and jigye were documents with different purposes and uses. Yang'an were registers used by government offices to manage land information. Jigye were certificates through which the state confirmed landownership.\n\n| Term | Meaning | Key distinction |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Yangjeon | Measuring land and identifying owners, taxpayers, and other details | Separate from issuing certificates |\n| Yang'an | Registers recording surveyed land and tax information | Different from ownership certificates issued to individuals |\n| Jigye | Certificates through which the state confirmed landownership | Not the same system as modern land registration |\n| Yangjiamun | Agency established to conduct yangjeon | Established in 1898 |\n| Jigyeamun | Agency established to organize land certificates | Later also took charge of yangjeon |\n\nAs the jigye project expanded the scope of its surveys, it also sometimes changed the name of the certificates to *gwangye*. Here, *gwangye* means certificates issued by a government office. Rules were also introduced that did not recognize foreign ownership of land outside open ports. [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Jigyeamun”](https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0054070)\n\n## Timeline of the Land Project and State Reorganization\n\nThe land project proceeded through the establishment of agencies, the expansion of surveys, and the consolidation of duties. The year 1898 was a turning point when an organization and regulations were put in place. Surveys and certificate issuance were then pursued over several years.\n\n| Year or date | Event | Source |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 1896 | Efforts to reorganize the system of government following the royal refuge at the Russian legation | Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform” |\n| October 1897 | Gojong became emperor, and the Korean Empire was established | Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform” |\n| July 1898 | Yangjiamun established and administrative regulations prepared | *Annals of Gojong*, July 6, 1898 |\n| 1899 | Full-scale land surveys began in the provinces | National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” |\n| August 17, 1899 | Daehan-guk Gukje promulgated | *Annals of Gojong*, entry for that date |\n| October 1901 | Jigyeamun established | National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” |\n| March 1902 | Yangjiamun merged into Jigyeamun | National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” |\n| September 25, 1903 | Resurveying of Suwon and Yongin and disciplinary action against those responsible approved | *Annals of Gojong*, entry for that date |\n| February 1904 | Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War worsened conditions for the project | National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” |\n| April 19, 1904 | Jigyeamun regulations abolished and the Land Survey Bureau established within the Ministry of Finance | *Annals of Gojong*, entry for that date |\n\nThe dates from the annals in the table follow the Gregorian dates shown on the respective pages. The Gwangmu era name was used until 1907. The period when the reform was actively pursued, however, is not considered to span the entire era. [Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform”](https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i401000)\n\n## The Establishment of Yangjiamun in 1898 as a Turning Point\n\nThe establishment of Yangjiamun in **July 1898** created an organization responsible for land surveys. The July 6 entry in the *Annals of Gojong* includes Imperial Decree No. 25. The regulations set out staffing, the chain of command, and responsibility for costs.\n\n- One foreign chief engineer was to be invited.\n- No more than 10 assistant technical staff were to be employed.\n- 20 Korean students were to be taken on as trainees.\n- Surveys were planned to start in Hanseong's 5 districts and expand outward.\n- The Ministry of Finance was to pay salaries and equipment costs.\n\nThese regulations planned for both the introduction of technology and the training of personnel. The staffing numbers in the regulations, however, do not establish how many people actually worked there. The planned order of surveys must also be distinguished from the route followed in practice. [*Annals of Gojong*, July 6, 1898](https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13507006_002)\n\nThe National Archives of Korea explains that Yangjiamun's provincial land surveys began in Asan, South Chungcheong Province. The regulation calling for a start in Hanseong alone cannot establish the route actually taken. Laws document plans, while implementation records document what was done.\n\n## The Relationship Between Stronger Imperial Power and the Land Project\n\nThe land project was a policy supporting a state run under the emperor. In 1899, the Daehan-guk Gukje declared the state's independence and sovereignty. At the same time, it concentrated military, legislative, administrative, and diplomatic authority in the emperor. Here, *gukje* means rules defining the state's system of government. [*Annals of Gojong*, August 17, 1899](https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13608017_002)\n\nThe term describing the direction of reform is *gubon sincham*. It means adopting new institutions and technologies on the basis of the traditional order. It does not mean abolishing every institution introduced by the Gabo Reform and returning to the past. [Our History Net, “Gubon Sincham”](https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_004_0100)\n\nThe revenue sought from land was also connected to other modernization projects. The Ministry of the Imperial Household and imperial financial agencies provided a base for pursuing various projects. Concentrating revenue in the imperial household, however, sometimes conflicted with government finances.\n\n| Field | Main policies | Why they should be considered alongside the land project |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Industry | Establishing companies, developing mines, and promoting commerce and industry | Required project funding and state control of the economy |\n| Cities, transportation, and communications | Improving Hanseong's roads, introducing trams, electric lights, and telephones, and pursuing railway construction | Required the funds and technology to operate modern facilities |\n| Education | Vocational education and training technical personnel | Sought to secure personnel to implement new institutions |\n| Military | Establishing the Wonsubu and expanding the military | Linked to strengthening the emperor's command of the military |\n| Finance | Reforming the currency system and planning a central bank | Some plans could not be carried out because of insufficient funds |\n\nThese policies aimed to modernize industry and administration. Politically, the emphasis on strengthening the emperor's power was clear. The dissolution of the Independence Club and the People's Joint Assembly shows the limits placed on broader political participation. [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Reform”](https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005118)\n\n## Results of the Gwangmu Reform's Yangjeon and Jigye Projects\n\nThe results can be seen in the expanded scope of surveys and improvements to land records. Yangjeon was an effort to record actual land conditions in new registers. In some areas, the state also pursued the issuance of certificates confirming landownership.\n\nThe National Archives of Korea totals the area covered by yangjeon up to its suspension in 1904. It covered **2 *bu* and 216 *gun* in 9 provinces**. South Pyeongan, North Pyeongan, South Hamgyeong, and North Hamgyeong provinces are excluded from this total. These figures refer to administrative units. [National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”](https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003653\u0026pageFlag=A\u0026sitePage=1-2-1)\n\nThe number of surveyed areas cannot be converted into a percentage of the nation's land area. Nor does the number of areas where yangjeon was completed equal the number where jigye issuance was completed. Surveying, compiling registers, and issuing certificates are separate results that must each be verified.\n\n| Item to check | Result that can be recognized | Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Land measurement | Expanded scope of field surveys | Completion of surveys of all land nationwide |\n| Compilation of yang'an | Improved records of taxation and ownership | Accuracy of every record |\n| Issuance of jigye | Pursuit of a system for state confirmation of ownership | Completion of issuance to owners nationwide |\n| Identification of taxable property | Identification of previously omitted taxable property | Reduced tax burdens for all farmers |\n\n## Survey Accuracy in the Suwon and Yongin Resurvey\n\nThe 1903 case of Suwon and Yongin shows that completing a survey and ensuring its accuracy are different matters. The September 25 entry in the *Annals of Gojong* records a report by Yi Yong-ik. It stated that earlier surveys had excessively inflated the number of *gyeol* attributed to the land.\n\nReports from the two counties and residents' appeals provided the basis for raising the issue. Yi Yong-ik requested another survey to correct the errors. Gojong approved the resurvey and disciplinary action against those responsible. [*Annals of Gojong*, September 25, 1903](https://sillok.history.go.kr/popup/print.do?gubun=all\u0026id=kza_14009025_002)\n\nThis record shows both errors in the project and steps to correct them. Approval of a resurvey, however, does not mean the corrections were ultimately completed. Nor can this case be taken to represent survey conditions in every part of the country.\n\n- Survey scope concerns where the project was conducted.\n- Survey accuracy concerns whether the records matched actual conditions.\n- Error correction is the process of identifying and fixing incorrect records.\n\nThese distinctions provide a basis for assessing the results of land surveys. Errors can remain even as the number of surveyed areas grows. Conversely, records of efforts to correct errors provide evidence of the administration's response.\n\n## Limits of the Gwangmu Reform and the Project's Suspension in 1904\n\nThe immediate turning point that prevented nationwide completion was the war and foreign interference of 1904. The Russo-Japanese War and the arrival of Japanese troops weakened the Korean Empire's ability to make policy independently. The jigye project also conflicted with Japanese interests in acquiring land.\n\nDomestic financial shortages also constrained the project. The approach of concentrating its leadership in the emperor and his close associates narrowed its political base. Its suspension therefore cannot be explained solely by external pressure.\n\nAn imperial decree of April 19, 1904 abolished the regulations governing Jigyeamun. At the same time, it established the Land Survey Bureau within the Ministry of Finance. The bureau was assigned duties including the surveying of land within the country. [*Annals of Gojong*, April 19, 1904](https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_14104019_003)\n\nThe agency's abolition should therefore not be read as the end of all land administration. The transfer of duties between organizations is separate from whether the project continued to expand. The result remains that nationwide yangjeon and certificate issuance were not completed.\n\n## Records and Interpretation\n\nLaws and reports show what measures were taken at the time, while their historical significance requires separate examination. Establishing a system alone does not establish that modern property rights were fully realized. Conversely, the project's suspension does not erase the surveys that were carried out.\n\n### Facts Established by the Records\n\nThe annals document agency regulations, policy decisions, and reports of errors. The 1898 entry sets out the design of the surveying organization. The 1903 entry shows how a problem was raised in particular areas and how officials responded. The 1904 entry records a reorganization of the responsible agency.\n\n### Explanations Widely Supported by Research\n\nIt is commonly recognized that the Korean Empire pursued modernization policies centered on the emperor. Several accounts also confirm that the land project was linked to securing revenue. Its failure to reach nationwide completion is likewise recorded as a distinct outcome.\n\n### Points of Disagreement\n\nDebate centers on the project's modern character and its actual effects. Some views give weight to the shift toward state confirmation of ownership. Others place more emphasis on expanded taxation and the preservation of the existing landlord system.\n\n| Issue | Interpretation emphasizing change | Interpretation emphasizing constraints |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Land system | Shift to a system that officially confirmed ownership | Preservation of existing ownership patterns and incomplete implementation |\n| Imperial power | Power base for pursuing reform under foreign pressure | Limits on political participation and concentration of power |\n| Finances | Securing funds needed for modernization projects | Expansion of imperial household finances and burdens on the public |\n\nOur History Net's account of the scholarship summarizes these differences in evaluation. That account also presents its author's academic views. An individual researcher's assessment should not be presented as a consensus across the field. [Our History Net, “Evaluations of the Korean Empire's Reform Projects”](https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/ht/view.do?levelId=ht_003_0050_0020)\n\n## What This Means for Understanding Land Records Today\n\nThis case shows that surveying land and maintaining records are different tasks. Even after land is surveyed once, its ownership and use can change. If registers do not reflect those changes, they again diverge from actual conditions.\n\nThe Encyclopedia of Korean Culture's entry on the “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” points to the problem of updating registers. It explains that keeping yang'an at the center alone made it difficult to understand changes in rural areas. This is a researcher's interpretation concerning the project's continuity. [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”](https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005120)\n\n- Survey records document the condition of land.\n- Ownership certificates document rights.\n- Correction and update records document how information changed.\n\nReading the yangjeon and jigye projects in these terms clarifies the different types of results. Expanded surveys and confirmation of rights were related changes. Ensuring accuracy and making regular updates remained separate challenges.\n\n## Frequently Asked Questions\n\n### Did the Yangjeon Project Distribute Land to Farmers?\n\nYangjeon involved measuring land and investigating ownership and tax obligations. It was distinct from a land redistribution project. Surveys and certificate issuance alone do not establish that existing ownership patterns changed.\n\n### Were Yangjiamun and Jigyeamun the Same Agency?\n\nThey were initially separate agencies with different duties. Yangjiamun handled surveying, while Jigyeamun organized land certificates. Yangjiamun was merged into Jigyeamun in 1902.\n\n### Were Nationwide Yangjeon Surveys Completed in 1898?\n\nThe year 1898 was when a dedicated agency and regulations were established. Provincial surveys expanded afterward. It was not the year the nationwide project was completed.\n\n### Can Jigye Be Considered the Same as Today's Land Register?\n\nTheir functions can be compared insofar as both provide official confirmation of ownership. A jigye, however, is a certificate, while a land register records rights. Their legal effects and methods of operation cannot be assumed to be the same.\n\n### Does *Gukje* in Daehan-guk Gukje Mean International Relations?\n\nHere, *gukje* means a state's system of government. The Daehan-guk Gukje defined independence and sovereignty and the emperor's authority. It is different from the word meaning relations between countries.\n\n### Did Land Surveys Reduce Farmers' Taxes?\n\nLand surveys did not necessarily mean tax cuts. The government sought to find taxable property that had been overlooked. Correcting incorrectly assessed burdens was also a task. In the Suwon and Yongin case, an excessive assessment of *gyeol* was at issue.\n\n### Did Reform Continue Until the Gwangmu Era Name Ceased to Be Used?\n\nThe period when the Gwangmu era name was used is distinct from the period when reform was pursued. The era name was used until 1907. Amid war and interference in 1904, the land project did not reach nationwide completion.","content_html":"\u003cp\u003eThe Gwangmu Reform was a modernization policy pursued by the Korean Empire after 1897. Facing pressure from foreign powers and financial difficulties, the empire undertook land surveys and institutional reforms. The yangjeon and jigye projects were not completed nationwide, but they marked a shift in land administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article follows the annals published by the National Institute of Korean History and explanations from the National Archives of Korea, checked in October 2026.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#why-land-surveys-were-needed\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"why-land-surveys-were-needed\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhy Land Surveys Were Needed\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Korean Empire inherited registers that did not accurately reflect conditions on the ground. Yang'an were government registers compiled to tax land. They had not been updated adequately for a long time, making it difficult to identify landowners accurately.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDocuments recording private land sales also had problems. Private documents were vulnerable to forgery and alteration. The system for obtaining official approval also had significant barriers for ordinary farmers. The National Archives of Korea's explanation of the “Farmland System” describes these weaknesses in proving rights. \u003ca href=\"https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003652\u0026amp;pageFlag=A\u0026amp;sitePage=1-2-1\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Farmland System”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe government needed tax revenue to support rising expenditures. Farmers demanded that unfair taxation be corrected. After the opening of ports, the need to control land purchases by foreigners also grew. Land surveys thus addressed both financial and rights-related issues.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eProblem at the time\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhat the surveys sought to establish\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003ePolicy goal\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Problem at the time\"\u003eDiscrepancies between registers and actual land conditions\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What the surveys sought to establish\"\u003eLand location, size, and use\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Policy goal\"\u003eImprove taxation records\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Problem at the time\"\u003eUnclear ownership and tax obligations\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What the surveys sought to establish\"\u003eOwners and taxpayers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Policy goal\"\u003eEstablish rights and tax obligations\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Problem at the time\"\u003eComplaints about unfair taxation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What the surveys sought to establish\"\u003eOmitted or incorrectly assessed taxable property\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Policy goal\"\u003eCorrect tax assessment errors\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Problem at the time\"\u003eGrowing land purchases by foreigners\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What the surveys sought to establish\"\u003eLand purchases and transfers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Policy goal\"\u003eStrengthen state control over land\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-difference-between-yangjeon-yangan-and-jigye\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-difference-between-yangjeon-yangan-and-jigye\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe Difference Between Yangjeon, Yang'an, and Jigye\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYangjeon was the act of surveying land, while yang'an and jigye were documents with different purposes and uses. Yang'an were registers used by government offices to manage land information. Jigye were certificates through which the state confirmed landownership.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eTerm\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMeaning\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eKey distinction\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Term\"\u003eYangjeon\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eMeasuring land and identifying owners, taxpayers, and other details\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Key distinction\"\u003eSeparate from issuing certificates\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Term\"\u003eYang'an\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eRegisters recording surveyed land and tax information\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Key distinction\"\u003eDifferent from ownership certificates issued to individuals\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Term\"\u003eJigye\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eCertificates through which the state confirmed landownership\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Key distinction\"\u003eNot the same system as modern land registration\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Term\"\u003eYangjiamun\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eAgency established to conduct yangjeon\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Key distinction\"\u003eEstablished in 1898\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Term\"\u003eJigyeamun\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Meaning\"\u003eAgency established to organize land certificates\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Key distinction\"\u003eLater also took charge of yangjeon\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the jigye project expanded the scope of its surveys, it also sometimes changed the name of the certificates to \u003cem\u003egwangye\u003c/em\u003e. Here, \u003cem\u003egwangye\u003c/em\u003e means certificates issued by a government office. Rules were also introduced that did not recognize foreign ownership of land outside open ports. \u003ca href=\"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0054070\"\u003eEncyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Jigyeamun”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#timeline-of-the-land-project-and-state-reorganization\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"timeline-of-the-land-project-and-state-reorganization\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eTimeline of the Land Project and State Reorganization\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe land project proceeded through the establishment of agencies, the expansion of surveys, and the consolidation of duties. The year 1898 was a turning point when an organization and regulations were put in place. Surveys and certificate issuance were then pursued over several years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eYear or date\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eEvent\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSource\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003e1896\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eEfforts to reorganize the system of government following the royal refuge at the Russian legation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eOur History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eOctober 1897\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eGojong became emperor, and the Korean Empire was established\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eOur History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eJuly 1898\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eYangjiamun established and administrative regulations prepared\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, July 6, 1898\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003e1899\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eFull-scale land surveys began in the provinces\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eAugust 17, 1899\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eDaehan-guk Gukje promulgated\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, entry for that date\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eOctober 1901\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eJigyeamun established\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eMarch 1902\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eYangjiamun merged into Jigyeamun\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eSeptember 25, 1903\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eResurveying of Suwon and Yongin and disciplinary action against those responsible approved\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, entry for that date\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eFebruary 1904\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eOutbreak of the Russo-Japanese War worsened conditions for the project\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year or date\"\u003eApril 19, 1904\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eJigyeamun regulations abolished and the Land Survey Bureau established within the Ministry of Finance\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, entry for that date\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dates from the annals in the table follow the Gregorian dates shown on the respective pages. The Gwangmu era name was used until 1907. The period when the reform was actively pursued, however, is not considered to span the entire era. \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i401000\"\u003eOur History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-establishment-of-yangjiamun-in-1898-as-a-turning-point\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-establishment-of-yangjiamun-in-1898-as-a-turning-point\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe Establishment of Yangjiamun in 1898 as a Turning Point\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe establishment of Yangjiamun in \u003cstrong\u003eJuly 1898\u003c/strong\u003e created an organization responsible for land surveys. The July 6 entry in the \u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e includes Imperial Decree No. 25. The regulations set out staffing, the chain of command, and responsibility for costs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOne foreign chief engineer was to be invited.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNo more than 10 assistant technical staff were to be employed.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e20 Korean students were to be taken on as trainees.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSurveys were planned to start in Hanseong's 5 districts and expand outward.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Ministry of Finance was to pay salaries and equipment costs.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese regulations planned for both the introduction of technology and the training of personnel. The staffing numbers in the regulations, however, do not establish how many people actually worked there. The planned order of surveys must also be distinguished from the route followed in practice. \u003ca href=\"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13507006_002\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, July 6, 1898\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National Archives of Korea explains that Yangjiamun's provincial land surveys began in Asan, South Chungcheong Province. The regulation calling for a start in Hanseong alone cannot establish the route actually taken. Laws document plans, while implementation records document what was done.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-relationship-between-stronger-imperial-power-and-the-land-project\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-relationship-between-stronger-imperial-power-and-the-land-project\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe Relationship Between Stronger Imperial Power and the Land Project\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe land project was a policy supporting a state run under the emperor. In 1899, the Daehan-guk Gukje declared the state's independence and sovereignty. At the same time, it concentrated military, legislative, administrative, and diplomatic authority in the emperor. Here, \u003cem\u003egukje\u003c/em\u003e means rules defining the state's system of government. \u003ca href=\"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13608017_002\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, August 17, 1899\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe term describing the direction of reform is \u003cem\u003egubon sincham\u003c/em\u003e. It means adopting new institutions and technologies on the basis of the traditional order. It does not mean abolishing every institution introduced by the Gabo Reform and returning to the past. \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_004_0100\"\u003eOur History Net, “Gubon Sincham”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe revenue sought from land was also connected to other modernization projects. The Ministry of the Imperial Household and imperial financial agencies provided a base for pursuing various projects. Concentrating revenue in the imperial household, however, sometimes conflicted with government finances.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eField\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMain policies\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhy they should be considered alongside the land project\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Field\"\u003eIndustry\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main policies\"\u003eEstablishing companies, developing mines, and promoting commerce and industry\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Why they should be considered alongside the land project\"\u003eRequired project funding and state control of the economy\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Field\"\u003eCities, transportation, and communications\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main policies\"\u003eImproving Hanseong's roads, introducing trams, electric lights, and telephones, and pursuing railway construction\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Why they should be considered alongside the land project\"\u003eRequired the funds and technology to operate modern facilities\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Field\"\u003eEducation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main policies\"\u003eVocational education and training technical personnel\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Why they should be considered alongside the land project\"\u003eSought to secure personnel to implement new institutions\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Field\"\u003eMilitary\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main policies\"\u003eEstablishing the Wonsubu and expanding the military\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Why they should be considered alongside the land project\"\u003eLinked to strengthening the emperor's command of the military\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Field\"\u003eFinance\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main policies\"\u003eReforming the currency system and planning a central bank\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Why they should be considered alongside the land project\"\u003eSome plans could not be carried out because of insufficient funds\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese policies aimed to modernize industry and administration. Politically, the emphasis on strengthening the emperor's power was clear. The dissolution of the Independence Club and the People's Joint Assembly shows the limits placed on broader political participation. \u003ca href=\"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005118\"\u003eEncyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Reform”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#results-of-the-gwangmu-reforms-yangjeon-and-jigye-projects\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"results-of-the-gwangmu-reforms-yangjeon-and-jigye-projects\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eResults of the Gwangmu Reform's Yangjeon and Jigye Projects\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results can be seen in the expanded scope of surveys and improvements to land records. Yangjeon was an effort to record actual land conditions in new registers. In some areas, the state also pursued the issuance of certificates confirming landownership.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National Archives of Korea totals the area covered by yangjeon up to its suspension in 1904. It covered \u003cstrong\u003e2 \u003cem\u003ebu\u003c/em\u003e and 216 \u003cem\u003egun\u003c/em\u003e in 9 provinces\u003c/strong\u003e. South Pyeongan, North Pyeongan, South Hamgyeong, and North Hamgyeong provinces are excluded from this total. These figures refer to administrative units. \u003ca href=\"https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003653\u0026amp;pageFlag=A\u0026amp;sitePage=1-2-1\"\u003eNational Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe number of surveyed areas cannot be converted into a percentage of the nation's land area. Nor does the number of areas where yangjeon was completed equal the number where jigye issuance was completed. Surveying, compiling registers, and issuing certificates are separate results that must each be verified.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eItem to check\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eResult that can be recognized\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eConclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Item to check\"\u003eLand measurement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Result that can be recognized\"\u003eExpanded scope of field surveys\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone\"\u003eCompletion of surveys of all land nationwide\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Item to check\"\u003eCompilation of yang'an\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Result that can be recognized\"\u003eImproved records of taxation and ownership\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone\"\u003eAccuracy of every record\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Item to check\"\u003eIssuance of jigye\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Result that can be recognized\"\u003ePursuit of a system for state confirmation of ownership\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone\"\u003eCompletion of issuance to owners nationwide\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Item to check\"\u003eIdentification of taxable property\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Result that can be recognized\"\u003eIdentification of previously omitted taxable property\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone\"\u003eReduced tax burdens for all farmers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#survey-accuracy-in-the-suwon-and-yongin-resurvey\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"survey-accuracy-in-the-suwon-and-yongin-resurvey\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eSurvey Accuracy in the Suwon and Yongin Resurvey\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 1903 case of Suwon and Yongin shows that completing a survey and ensuring its accuracy are different matters. The September 25 entry in the \u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e records a report by Yi Yong-ik. It stated that earlier surveys had excessively inflated the number of \u003cem\u003egyeol\u003c/em\u003e attributed to the land.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReports from the two counties and residents' appeals provided the basis for raising the issue. Yi Yong-ik requested another survey to correct the errors. Gojong approved the resurvey and disciplinary action against those responsible. \u003ca href=\"https://sillok.history.go.kr/popup/print.do?gubun=all\u0026amp;id=kza_14009025_002\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, September 25, 1903\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis record shows both errors in the project and steps to correct them. Approval of a resurvey, however, does not mean the corrections were ultimately completed. Nor can this case be taken to represent survey conditions in every part of the country.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSurvey scope concerns where the project was conducted.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSurvey accuracy concerns whether the records matched actual conditions.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eError correction is the process of identifying and fixing incorrect records.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese distinctions provide a basis for assessing the results of land surveys. Errors can remain even as the number of surveyed areas grows. Conversely, records of efforts to correct errors provide evidence of the administration's response.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#limits-of-the-gwangmu-reform-and-the-projects-suspension-in-1904\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"limits-of-the-gwangmu-reform-and-the-projects-suspension-in-1904\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eLimits of the Gwangmu Reform and the Project's Suspension in 1904\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe immediate turning point that prevented nationwide completion was the war and foreign interference of 1904. The Russo-Japanese War and the arrival of Japanese troops weakened the Korean Empire's ability to make policy independently. The jigye project also conflicted with Japanese interests in acquiring land.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDomestic financial shortages also constrained the project. The approach of concentrating its leadership in the emperor and his close associates narrowed its political base. Its suspension therefore cannot be explained solely by external pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn imperial decree of April 19, 1904 abolished the regulations governing Jigyeamun. At the same time, it established the Land Survey Bureau within the Ministry of Finance. The bureau was assigned duties including the surveying of land within the country. \u003ca href=\"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_14104019_003\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnnals of Gojong\u003c/em\u003e, April 19, 1904\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe agency's abolition should therefore not be read as the end of all land administration. The transfer of duties between organizations is separate from whether the project continued to expand. The result remains that nationwide yangjeon and certificate issuance were not completed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#records-and-interpretation\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"records-and-interpretation\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eRecords and Interpretation\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLaws and reports show what measures were taken at the time, while their historical significance requires separate examination. Establishing a system alone does not establish that modern property rights were fully realized. Conversely, the project's suspension does not erase the surveys that were carried out.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#facts-established-by-the-records\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"facts-established-by-the-records\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFacts Established by the Records\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe annals document agency regulations, policy decisions, and reports of errors. The 1898 entry sets out the design of the surveying organization. The 1903 entry shows how a problem was raised in particular areas and how officials responded. The 1904 entry records a reorganization of the responsible agency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#explanations-widely-supported-by-research\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"explanations-widely-supported-by-research\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eExplanations Widely Supported by Research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is commonly recognized that the Korean Empire pursued modernization policies centered on the emperor. Several accounts also confirm that the land project was linked to securing revenue. Its failure to reach nationwide completion is likewise recorded as a distinct outcome.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#points-of-disagreement\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"points-of-disagreement\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ePoints of Disagreement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDebate centers on the project's modern character and its actual effects. Some views give weight to the shift toward state confirmation of ownership. Others place more emphasis on expanded taxation and the preservation of the existing landlord system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eIssue\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eInterpretation emphasizing change\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eInterpretation emphasizing constraints\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eLand system\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing change\"\u003eShift to a system that officially confirmed ownership\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing constraints\"\u003ePreservation of existing ownership patterns and incomplete implementation\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eImperial power\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing change\"\u003ePower base for pursuing reform under foreign pressure\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing constraints\"\u003eLimits on political participation and concentration of power\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eFinances\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing change\"\u003eSecuring funds needed for modernization projects\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Interpretation emphasizing constraints\"\u003eExpansion of imperial household finances and burdens on the public\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur History Net's account of the scholarship summarizes these differences in evaluation. That account also presents its author's academic views. An individual researcher's assessment should not be presented as a consensus across the field. \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/ht/view.do?levelId=ht_003_0050_0020\"\u003eOur History Net, “Evaluations of the Korean Empire's Reform Projects”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-this-means-for-understanding-land-records-today\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-this-means-for-understanding-land-records-today\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat This Means for Understanding Land Records Today\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis case shows that surveying land and maintaining records are different tasks. Even after land is surveyed once, its ownership and use can change. If registers do not reflect those changes, they again diverge from actual conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Encyclopedia of Korean Culture's entry on the “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” points to the problem of updating registers. It explains that keeping yang'an at the center alone made it difficult to understand changes in rural areas. This is a researcher's interpretation concerning the project's continuity. \u003ca href=\"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005120\"\u003eEncyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project”\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSurvey records document the condition of land.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOwnership certificates document rights.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCorrection and update records document how information changed.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReading the yangjeon and jigye projects in these terms clarifies the different types of results. Expanded surveys and confirmation of rights were related changes. Ensuring accuracy and making regular updates remained separate challenges.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#frequently-asked-questions\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"frequently-asked-questions\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFrequently Asked Questions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-the-yangjeon-project-distribute-land-to-farmers\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-the-yangjeon-project-distribute-land-to-farmers\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid the Yangjeon Project Distribute Land to Farmers?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eYangjeon involved measuring land and investigating ownership and tax obligations. It was distinct from a land redistribution project. Surveys and certificate issuance alone do not establish that existing ownership patterns changed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#were-yangjiamun-and-jigyeamun-the-same-agency\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"were-yangjiamun-and-jigyeamun-the-same-agency\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWere Yangjiamun and Jigyeamun the Same Agency?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey were initially separate agencies with different duties. Yangjiamun handled surveying, while Jigyeamun organized land certificates. Yangjiamun was merged into Jigyeamun in 1902.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#were-nationwide-yangjeon-surveys-completed-in-1898\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"were-nationwide-yangjeon-surveys-completed-in-1898\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWere Nationwide Yangjeon Surveys Completed in 1898?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe year 1898 was when a dedicated agency and regulations were established. Provincial surveys expanded afterward. It was not the year the nationwide project was completed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#can-jigye-be-considered-the-same-as-todays-land-register\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"can-jigye-be-considered-the-same-as-todays-land-register\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eCan Jigye Be Considered the Same as Today's Land Register?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTheir functions can be compared insofar as both provide official confirmation of ownership. A jigye, however, is a certificate, while a land register records rights. Their legal effects and methods of operation cannot be assumed to be the same.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#does-gukje-in-daehan-guk-gukje-mean-international-relations\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"does-gukje-in-daehan-guk-gukje-mean-international-relations\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDoes \u003cem\u003eGukje\u003c/em\u003e in Daehan-guk Gukje Mean International Relations?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHere, \u003cem\u003egukje\u003c/em\u003e means a state's system of government. The Daehan-guk Gukje defined independence and sovereignty and the emperor's authority. It is different from the word meaning relations between countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-land-surveys-reduce-farmers-taxes\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-land-surveys-reduce-farmers-taxes\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid Land Surveys Reduce Farmers' Taxes?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLand surveys did not necessarily mean tax cuts. The government sought to find taxable property that had been overlooked. Correcting incorrectly assessed burdens was also a task. In the Suwon and Yongin case, an excessive assessment of \u003cem\u003egyeol\u003c/em\u003e was at issue.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-reform-continue-until-the-gwangmu-era-name-ceased-to-be-used\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-reform-continue-until-the-gwangmu-era-name-ceased-to-be-used\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid Reform Continue Until the Gwangmu Era Name Ceased to Be Used?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe period when the Gwangmu era name was used is distinct from the period when reform was pursued. The era name was used until 1907. Amid war and interference in 1904, the land project did not reach nationwide completion.\u003c/p\u003e\n","tags":["Taxes","Public Finance","Modern Korean history"],"faqs":[{"question":"Was the land survey project a program that distributed land to farmers?","answer":"The land survey project measured land and investigated ownership and tax payment arrangements. It was distinct from a program to redistribute land. The investigation and issuance of certificates alone do not mean that the existing ownership structure changed."},{"question":"Were the Yangji Amun and Jigye Amun the same agency?","answer":"They were initially separate agencies with different responsibilities. The Yangji Amun handled surveying, while the Jigye Amun organized land certificates. In 1902, the Yangji Amun was merged into the Jigye Amun."},{"question":"Was the nationwide land survey completed in 1898?","answer":"1898 was the year a dedicated agency and regulations were established. Surveys in the provinces expanded afterward. It was not the year the nationwide project was completed."},{"question":"Can a jigye be considered the same as a modern land register?","answer":"Their role in officially confirming ownership is comparable. But a jigye is a certificate, while a land register is a record of rights. Their legal effect and how they operate cannot be considered the same."},{"question":"Does the gukje in Daehan-guk Gukje mean international relations?","answer":"Here, gukje means a country's system of government. Daehan-guk Gukje set out sovereign independence and the emperor's powers. It is a different word from gukje meaning relations between countries."},{"question":"Did land surveys reduce farmers' taxes?","answer":"A land survey did not necessarily mean a tax cut. The government sought to identify overlooked sources of tax revenue. Correcting improperly assessed tax burdens was also a task. In the Suwon and Yongin cases, the assessed land area in gyeol was too high."},{"question":"Did the reforms continue as long as the Gwangmu era name was used?","answer":"The period when the Gwangmu era name was used is distinct from the period when the reforms were pursued. The era name was used until 1907. Amid war and interference in 1904, the land project was not completed nationwide."}],"sources":[{"url":"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13507006_002","title":"Annals of Gojong, July 6, 1898: Promulgates regulations on the staff and administrative procedures of the Land Survey Office","type":"source"},{"url":"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13608017_002","title":"Annals of Gojong, August 17, 1899: Grants an audience to the president and other officials of the Office for the Revision of Laws and Regulations; includes the Constitution of the Great Korean Empire","type":"source"},{"url":"https://sillok.history.go.kr/popup/print.do?gubun=all\u0026id=kza_14009025_002","title":"Annals of Gojong, September 25, 1903: Orders the land in Suwon and Yongin to be surveyed again","type":"source"},{"url":"https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_14104019_003","title":"Annals of Gojong, April 19, 1904: Establishes an additional Land Survey Bureau within the Ministry of Finance","type":"source"},{"url":"https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003652\u0026pageFlag=A\u0026sitePage=1-2-1","title":"National Archives of Korea, Farmland System","type":"source"},{"url":"https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003653\u0026pageFlag=A\u0026sitePage=1-2-1","title":"National Archives of Korea, Gwangmu Land Survey Project","type":"data_point"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i401000","title":"National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reforms","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_004_0100","title":"National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, The Old as the Foundation and the New as a Reference","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/ht/view.do?levelId=ht_003_0050_0020","title":"National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, Evaluation of the Korean Empire's Reform Efforts","type":"source"},{"url":"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005118","title":"Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Gwangmu Reforms","type":"source"},{"url":"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0054070","title":"Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Land Title Office","type":"source"},{"url":"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005120","title":"Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Gwangmu Land Survey Project","type":"source"}],"images":[{"id":1899,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjkyNzcsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--7ad00f30dac0fd0348fcd3e911f9e9f4d7e68e00/ai-328f1d04.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"흐린 하늘 아래 논두렁을 줄과 말뚝으로 측량하는 사람들과 장부를 확인하는 기록 담당자.","caption":"1903년 수원·용인 재측량 기록은 조사 범위와 정확성을 구분해야 함을 보여 준다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Surveyors measure rice paddy edges with cords and stakes while a clerk checks a ledger under cloudy skies.","caption":"The 1903 Suwon and Yongin remeasurement records show why the scope and accuracy of a survey must be assessed separately.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"曇り空の下、縄と杭で水田の境を測る人々と、台帳を確認する記録係。","caption":"1903年の水原・龍仁の再測量記録は、調査範囲と精度を分けて考える必要性を示している。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Agrimensores miden los lindes de arrozales con cuerdas y estacas mientras un escribiente consulta un registro.","caption":"Los registros de nuevas mediciones de Suwon y Yongin en 1903 muestran que el alcance y la precisión deben evaluarse por separado.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Petugas mengukur batas sawah dengan tali dan patok, sementara seorang juru tulis memeriksa buku tanah.","caption":"Catatan pengukuran ulang Suwon dan Yongin pada 1903 menunjukkan bahwa cakupan dan ketelitian survei harus dibedakan.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Agrimensores medem os limites de arrozais com cordas e estacas enquanto um escrivão consulta um registro.","caption":"Os registros de remedição de Suwon e Yongin em 1903 mostram que o alcance e a precisão do levantamento devem ser avaliados separadamente.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"陰天下，測量人員用繩索和木樁丈量稻田邊界，一名書記查看田地簿冊。","caption":"1903年水原、龍仁的重新測量紀錄顯示，調查範圍與準確度應分開看待。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Vermesser messen Reisfeldgrenzen mit Schnüren und Pflöcken, während ein Schreiber ein Feldregister prüft.","caption":"Die Aufzeichnungen zur Neuvermessung in Suwon und Yongin von 1903 zeigen, dass Umfang und Genauigkeit getrennt zu beurteilen sind.","description":null}}},{"id":1900,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjkyODMsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--9fd37b435a0ba5c3bf97beb7954611eee335c24b/ai-794c033a.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"한옥 관청의 넓은 마당을 사이에 두고 낮은 책상에서 장부를 살피는 관리들","caption":"1902년 양지아문이 지계아문에 통합되면서 측량과 증서 발급을 한 기관이 맡았다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Clerks examine ledgers at low desks across the courtyard of a traditional Korean office","caption":"In 1902, one agency took charge of both land surveys and certificate issuance.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"韓国の伝統的な役所の中庭を挟み、低い机で台帳を調べる役人たち","caption":"1902年の統合により、土地の測量と証書の発行を同じ機関が担うようになった。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Escribientes revisan registros en mesas bajas alrededor del patio de una oficina tradicional coreana","caption":"En 1902, una misma oficina pasó a encargarse de la medición de tierras y la emisión de certificados.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Para juru tulis memeriksa buku catatan di meja rendah di sekitar halaman kantor tradisional Korea","caption":"Pada 1902, satu lembaga mulai menangani pengukuran tanah sekaligus penerbitan sertifikat.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Funcionários examinam registros em mesas baixas ao redor do pátio de uma repartição coreana tradicional","caption":"Em 1902, um mesmo órgão passou a cuidar da medição de terras e da emissão de certificados.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"韓式傳統官署的庭院兩側，職員坐在矮桌前查閱簿冊","caption":"1902年機構整併後，土地測量與證書核發由同一機關負責。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Schreiber prüfen Register an niedrigen Tischen rund um den Hof eines traditionellen koreanischen Amtsgebäudes","caption":"Ab 1902 war eine einzige Behörde für die Landvermessung und die Ausstellung von Urkunden zuständig.","description":null}}}],"published_at":"2026-10-17T17:53:52+09:00","updated_at":"2026-10-17T17:53:52+09:00","license":"cc_by","translation_status":"reviewed","available_locales":["ko","en","ja","es"],"data_locales":["ko","en","ja","es","id","pt","zh-hant","de"],"url":"https://injoys.com/en/articles/gwangmu-reform-land-survey-certificates-background-results"}