Gwangmu Reform Land Survey and Deeds: Background and Results ============================================================ The Korean Empire undertook the land survey and title deed project to update outdated land records and secure a fiscal base. Surveys and deed issuance proceeded in some areas, but the project was not completed nationwide. Records of surveying errors and re-surveys also remain. - Land surveying involved measuring land and investigating ownership and tax obligations. - The establishment of Yangji Amun in 1898 marked a turning point, creating an agency dedicated to land surveys. - In 1902, Yangji Amun was merged into Jigye Amun, putting surveys and deed issuance under one agency. - The 1903 records of re-surveys in Suwon and Yongin show why survey coverage must be distinguished from survey accuracy. - The land survey and title deed project was not completed nationwide amid the 1904 Russo-Japanese War and Japanese interference. The Gwangmu Reform was a modernization policy pursued by the Korean Empire after 1897. Facing pressure from foreign powers and financial difficulties, the empire undertook land surveys and institutional reforms. The yangjeon and jigye projects were not completed nationwide, but they marked a shift in land administration. This article follows the annals published by the National Institute of Korean History and explanations from the National Archives of Korea, checked in October 2026. Why Land Surveys Were Needed The Korean Empire inherited registers that did not accurately reflect conditions on the ground. Yang'an were government registers compiled to tax land. They had not been updated adequately for a long time, making it difficult to identify landowners accurately. Documents recording private land sales also had problems. Private documents were vulnerable to forgery and alteration. The system for obtaining official approval also had significant barriers for ordinary farmers. The National Archives of Korea's explanation of the “Farmland System” describes these weaknesses in proving rights. National Archives of Korea, “Farmland System” The government needed tax revenue to support rising expenditures. Farmers demanded that unfair taxation be corrected. After the opening of ports, the need to control land purchases by foreigners also grew. Land surveys thus addressed both financial and rights-related issues. Problem at the time What the surveys sought to establish Policy goal Discrepancies between registers and actual land conditions Land location, size, and use Improve taxation records Unclear ownership and tax obligations Owners and taxpayers Establish rights and tax obligations Complaints about unfair taxation Omitted or incorrectly assessed taxable property Correct tax assessment errors Growing land purchases by foreigners Land purchases and transfers Strengthen state control over land The Difference Between Yangjeon, Yang'an, and Jigye Yangjeon was the act of surveying land, while yang'an and jigye were documents with different purposes and uses. Yang'an were registers used by government offices to manage land information. Jigye were certificates through which the state confirmed landownership. Term Meaning Key distinction Yangjeon Measuring land and identifying owners, taxpayers, and other details Separate from issuing certificates Yang'an Registers recording surveyed land and tax information Different from ownership certificates issued to individuals Jigye Certificates through which the state confirmed landownership Not the same system as modern land registration Yangjiamun Agency established to conduct yangjeon Established in 1898 Jigyeamun Agency established to organize land certificates Later also took charge of yangjeon As the jigye project expanded the scope of its surveys, it also sometimes changed the name of the certificates to gwangye. Here, gwangye means certificates issued by a government office. Rules were also introduced that did not recognize foreign ownership of land outside open ports. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Jigyeamun” Timeline of the Land Project and State Reorganization The land project proceeded through the establishment of agencies, the expansion of surveys, and the consolidation of duties. The year 1898 was a turning point when an organization and regulations were put in place. Surveys and certificate issuance were then pursued over several years. Year or date Event Source 1896 Efforts to reorganize the system of government following the royal refuge at the Russian legation Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform” October 1897 Gojong became emperor, and the Korean Empire was established Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform” July 1898 Yangjiamun established and administrative regulations prepared Annals of Gojong, July 6, 1898 1899 Full-scale land surveys began in the provinces National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” August 17, 1899 Daehan-guk Gukje promulgated Annals of Gojong, entry for that date October 1901 Jigyeamun established National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” March 1902 Yangjiamun merged into Jigyeamun National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” September 25, 1903 Resurveying of Suwon and Yongin and disciplinary action against those responsible approved Annals of Gojong, entry for that date February 1904 Outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War worsened conditions for the project National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” April 19, 1904 Jigyeamun regulations abolished and the Land Survey Bureau established within the Ministry of Finance Annals of Gojong, entry for that date The dates from the annals in the table follow the Gregorian dates shown on the respective pages. The Gwangmu era name was used until 1907. The period when the reform was actively pursued, however, is not considered to span the entire era. Our History Net, “The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reform” The Establishment of Yangjiamun in 1898 as a Turning Point The establishment of Yangjiamun in July 1898 created an organization responsible for land surveys. The July 6 entry in the Annals of Gojong includes Imperial Decree No. 25. The regulations set out staffing, the chain of command, and responsibility for costs. One foreign chief engineer was to be invited. No more than 10 assistant technical staff were to be employed. 20 Korean students were to be taken on as trainees. Surveys were planned to start in Hanseong's 5 districts and expand outward. The Ministry of Finance was to pay salaries and equipment costs. These regulations planned for both the introduction of technology and the training of personnel. The staffing numbers in the regulations, however, do not establish how many people actually worked there. The planned order of surveys must also be distinguished from the route followed in practice. Annals of Gojong, July 6, 1898 The National Archives of Korea explains that Yangjiamun's provincial land surveys began in Asan, South Chungcheong Province. The regulation calling for a start in Hanseong alone cannot establish the route actually taken. Laws document plans, while implementation records document what was done. The Relationship Between Stronger Imperial Power and the Land Project The land project was a policy supporting a state run under the emperor. In 1899, the Daehan-guk Gukje declared the state's independence and sovereignty. At the same time, it concentrated military, legislative, administrative, and diplomatic authority in the emperor. Here, gukje means rules defining the state's system of government. Annals of Gojong, August 17, 1899 The term describing the direction of reform is gubon sincham. It means adopting new institutions and technologies on the basis of the traditional order. It does not mean abolishing every institution introduced by the Gabo Reform and returning to the past. Our History Net, “Gubon Sincham” The revenue sought from land was also connected to other modernization projects. The Ministry of the Imperial Household and imperial financial agencies provided a base for pursuing various projects. Concentrating revenue in the imperial household, however, sometimes conflicted with government finances. Field Main policies Why they should be considered alongside the land project Industry Establishing companies, developing mines, and promoting commerce and industry Required project funding and state control of the economy Cities, transportation, and communications Improving Hanseong's roads, introducing trams, electric lights, and telephones, and pursuing railway construction Required the funds and technology to operate modern facilities Education Vocational education and training technical personnel Sought to secure personnel to implement new institutions Military Establishing the Wonsubu and expanding the military Linked to strengthening the emperor's command of the military Finance Reforming the currency system and planning a central bank Some plans could not be carried out because of insufficient funds These policies aimed to modernize industry and administration. Politically, the emphasis on strengthening the emperor's power was clear. The dissolution of the Independence Club and the People's Joint Assembly shows the limits placed on broader political participation. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Reform” Results of the Gwangmu Reform's Yangjeon and Jigye Projects The results can be seen in the expanded scope of surveys and improvements to land records. Yangjeon was an effort to record actual land conditions in new registers. In some areas, the state also pursued the issuance of certificates confirming landownership. The National Archives of Korea totals the area covered by yangjeon up to its suspension in 1904. It covered 2 bu and 216 gun in 9 provinces. South Pyeongan, North Pyeongan, South Hamgyeong, and North Hamgyeong provinces are excluded from this total. These figures refer to administrative units. National Archives of Korea, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” The number of surveyed areas cannot be converted into a percentage of the nation's land area. Nor does the number of areas where yangjeon was completed equal the number where jigye issuance was completed. Surveying, compiling registers, and issuing certificates are separate results that must each be verified. Item to check Result that can be recognized Conclusion that cannot be drawn from that fact alone Land measurement Expanded scope of field surveys Completion of surveys of all land nationwide Compilation of yang'an Improved records of taxation and ownership Accuracy of every record Issuance of jigye Pursuit of a system for state confirmation of ownership Completion of issuance to owners nationwide Identification of taxable property Identification of previously omitted taxable property Reduced tax burdens for all farmers Survey Accuracy in the Suwon and Yongin Resurvey The 1903 case of Suwon and Yongin shows that completing a survey and ensuring its accuracy are different matters. The September 25 entry in the Annals of Gojong records a report by Yi Yong-ik. It stated that earlier surveys had excessively inflated the number of gyeol attributed to the land. Reports from the two counties and residents' appeals provided the basis for raising the issue. Yi Yong-ik requested another survey to correct the errors. Gojong approved the resurvey and disciplinary action against those responsible. Annals of Gojong, September 25, 1903 This record shows both errors in the project and steps to correct them. Approval of a resurvey, however, does not mean the corrections were ultimately completed. Nor can this case be taken to represent survey conditions in every part of the country. Survey scope concerns where the project was conducted. Survey accuracy concerns whether the records matched actual conditions. Error correction is the process of identifying and fixing incorrect records. These distinctions provide a basis for assessing the results of land surveys. Errors can remain even as the number of surveyed areas grows. Conversely, records of efforts to correct errors provide evidence of the administration's response. Limits of the Gwangmu Reform and the Project's Suspension in 1904 The immediate turning point that prevented nationwide completion was the war and foreign interference of 1904. The Russo-Japanese War and the arrival of Japanese troops weakened the Korean Empire's ability to make policy independently. The jigye project also conflicted with Japanese interests in acquiring land. Domestic financial shortages also constrained the project. The approach of concentrating its leadership in the emperor and his close associates narrowed its political base. Its suspension therefore cannot be explained solely by external pressure. An imperial decree of April 19, 1904 abolished the regulations governing Jigyeamun. At the same time, it established the Land Survey Bureau within the Ministry of Finance. The bureau was assigned duties including the surveying of land within the country. Annals of Gojong, April 19, 1904 The agency's abolition should therefore not be read as the end of all land administration. The transfer of duties between organizations is separate from whether the project continued to expand. The result remains that nationwide yangjeon and certificate issuance were not completed. Records and Interpretation Laws and reports show what measures were taken at the time, while their historical significance requires separate examination. Establishing a system alone does not establish that modern property rights were fully realized. Conversely, the project's suspension does not erase the surveys that were carried out. Facts Established by the Records The annals document agency regulations, policy decisions, and reports of errors. The 1898 entry sets out the design of the surveying organization. The 1903 entry shows how a problem was raised in particular areas and how officials responded. The 1904 entry records a reorganization of the responsible agency. Explanations Widely Supported by Research It is commonly recognized that the Korean Empire pursued modernization policies centered on the emperor. Several accounts also confirm that the land project was linked to securing revenue. Its failure to reach nationwide completion is likewise recorded as a distinct outcome. Points of Disagreement Debate centers on the project's modern character and its actual effects. Some views give weight to the shift toward state confirmation of ownership. Others place more emphasis on expanded taxation and the preservation of the existing landlord system. Issue Interpretation emphasizing change Interpretation emphasizing constraints Land system Shift to a system that officially confirmed ownership Preservation of existing ownership patterns and incomplete implementation Imperial power Power base for pursuing reform under foreign pressure Limits on political participation and concentration of power Finances Securing funds needed for modernization projects Expansion of imperial household finances and burdens on the public Our History Net's account of the scholarship summarizes these differences in evaluation. That account also presents its author's academic views. An individual researcher's assessment should not be presented as a consensus across the field. Our History Net, “Evaluations of the Korean Empire's Reform Projects” What This Means for Understanding Land Records Today This case shows that surveying land and maintaining records are different tasks. Even after land is surveyed once, its ownership and use can change. If registers do not reflect those changes, they again diverge from actual conditions. The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture's entry on the “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” points to the problem of updating registers. It explains that keeping yang'an at the center alone made it difficult to understand changes in rural areas. This is a researcher's interpretation concerning the project's continuity. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Gwangmu Land Survey Project” Survey records document the condition of land. Ownership certificates document rights. Correction and update records document how information changed. Reading the yangjeon and jigye projects in these terms clarifies the different types of results. Expanded surveys and confirmation of rights were related changes. Ensuring accuracy and making regular updates remained separate challenges. Frequently Asked Questions Did the Yangjeon Project Distribute Land to Farmers? Yangjeon involved measuring land and investigating ownership and tax obligations. It was distinct from a land redistribution project. Surveys and certificate issuance alone do not establish that existing ownership patterns changed. Were Yangjiamun and Jigyeamun the Same Agency? They were initially separate agencies with different duties. Yangjiamun handled surveying, while Jigyeamun organized land certificates. Yangjiamun was merged into Jigyeamun in 1902. Were Nationwide Yangjeon Surveys Completed in 1898? The year 1898 was when a dedicated agency and regulations were established. Provincial surveys expanded afterward. It was not the year the nationwide project was completed. Can Jigye Be Considered the Same as Today's Land Register? Their functions can be compared insofar as both provide official confirmation of ownership. A jigye, however, is a certificate, while a land register records rights. Their legal effects and methods of operation cannot be assumed to be the same. Does Gukje in Daehan-guk Gukje Mean International Relations? Here, gukje means a state's system of government. The Daehan-guk Gukje defined independence and sovereignty and the emperor's authority. It is different from the word meaning relations between countries. Did Land Surveys Reduce Farmers' Taxes? Land surveys did not necessarily mean tax cuts. The government sought to find taxable property that had been overlooked. Correcting incorrectly assessed burdens was also a task. In the Suwon and Yongin case, an excessive assessment of gyeol was at issue. Did Reform Continue Until the Gwangmu Era Name Ceased to Be Used? The period when the Gwangmu era name was used is distinct from the period when reform was pursued. The era name was used until 1907. Amid war and interference in 1904, the land project did not reach nationwide completion. FAQ Q. Was the land survey project a program that distributed land to farmers? A. The land survey project measured land and investigated ownership and tax payment arrangements. It was distinct from a program to redistribute land. The investigation and issuance of certificates alone do not mean that the existing ownership structure changed. Q. Were the Yangji Amun and Jigye Amun the same agency? A. They were initially separate agencies with different responsibilities. The Yangji Amun handled surveying, while the Jigye Amun organized land certificates. In 1902, the Yangji Amun was merged into the Jigye Amun. Q. Was the nationwide land survey completed in 1898? A. 1898 was the year a dedicated agency and regulations were established. Surveys in the provinces expanded afterward. It was not the year the nationwide project was completed. Q. Can a jigye be considered the same as a modern land register? A. Their role in officially confirming ownership is comparable. But a jigye is a certificate, while a land register is a record of rights. Their legal effect and how they operate cannot be considered the same. Q. Does the gukje in Daehan-guk Gukje mean international relations? A. Here, gukje means a country's system of government. Daehan-guk Gukje set out sovereign independence and the emperor's powers. It is a different word from gukje meaning relations between countries. Q. Did land surveys reduce farmers' taxes? A. A land survey did not necessarily mean a tax cut. The government sought to identify overlooked sources of tax revenue. Correcting improperly assessed tax burdens was also a task. In the Suwon and Yongin cases, the assessed land area in gyeol was too high. Q. Did the reforms continue as long as the Gwangmu era name was used? A. The period when the Gwangmu era name was used is distinct from the period when the reforms were pursued. The era name was used until 1907. Amid war and interference in 1904, the land project was not completed nationwide. Sources - Annals of Gojong, July 6, 1898: Promulgates regulations on the staff and administrative procedures of the Land Survey Office: https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13507006_002 - Annals of Gojong, August 17, 1899: Grants an audience to the president and other officials of the Office for the Revision of Laws and Regulations; includes the Constitution of the Great Korean Empire: https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_13608017_002 - Annals of Gojong, September 25, 1903: Orders the land in Suwon and Yongin to be surveyed again: https://sillok.history.go.kr/popup/print.do?gubun=all&id=kza_14009025_002 - Annals of Gojong, April 19, 1904: Establishes an additional Land Survey Bureau within the Ministry of Finance: https://sillok.history.go.kr/id/kza_14104019_003 - National Archives of Korea, Farmland System: https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003652&pageFlag=A&sitePage=1-2-1 - National Archives of Korea, Gwangmu Land Survey Project: https://archives.go.kr/next/newsearch/listSubjectDescription.do?id=003653&pageFlag=A&sitePage=1-2-1 - National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, The Korean Empire and the Gwangmu Reforms: https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_i401000 - National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, The Old as the Foundation and the New as a Reference: https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_004_0100 - National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net, Evaluation of the Korean Empire's Reform Efforts: https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/ht/view.do?levelId=ht_003_0050_0020 - Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Gwangmu Reforms: https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005118 - Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Land Title Office: https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0054070 - Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Gwangmu Land Survey Project: https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005120 Images - Surveyors measure rice paddy edges with cords and stakes while a clerk checks a ledger under cloudy skies.: https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjkyNzcsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--7ad00f30dac0fd0348fcd3e911f9e9f4d7e68e00/ai-328f1d04.webp - Clerks examine ledgers at low desks across the courtyard of a traditional Korean office: https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjkyODMsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--9fd37b435a0ba5c3bf97beb7954611eee335c24b/ai-794c033a.webp --- Category: Knowledge Base Source: https://injoys.com/en/articles/gwangmu-reform-land-survey-certificates-background-results License: cc_by Translation-Status: reviewed