{"content_id":"mkptdmy9ry","slug":"galileo-galilei-1638-two-new-sciences-publication","locale":"en","schema_type":"Article","category":"case_study","category_name":"Case Study","title":"Galileo Galilei's 1638 Publication Process","summary":"Galileo Galilei continued his research under house arrest after his 1633 trial. Published in Leiden in 1638 through overseas contacts and a publisher's mediation, Two New Sciences presented his research on motion and the strength of materials.","sponsorship_disclosure":null,"affiliate_disclosure":null,"commerce_disclosure":null,"author":{"name":"Injoys Editorial Team","url":"https://injoys.com/ko/about"},"key_points":["Galileo was convicted on June 22, 1633, and recanted his position on heliocentrism.","Even after returning to Arcetri, he was prohibited from meeting visitors for scientific discussions.","Two New Sciences was published in Leiden in 1638 through the mediation of overseas contacts.","The book's two main subjects are the motion of bodies and the resistance of materials to failure.","Codex 72 contains research drafts from different periods, so its page order cannot be taken as the order in which they were written."],"content_markdown":"Galileo Galilei was placed under house arrest after his trial in 1633. With help from contacts abroad, he published *Two New Sciences* in **1638**. This is remembered as a case in which research on mechanics was preserved in a book despite restrictions on the author's freedom.\n\nThis article follows the records of Museo Galileo and the manuscripts, as checked in November 2026.\n\n## What was restricted at the 1633 trial?\n\nGalileo was convicted by the Inquisition because of his position on heliocentrism. The background included a 1616 order not to defend heliocentrism. His *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*, published in 1632, brought the issue before the Inquisition again.\n\nThe sentence was handed down in Rome on June 22, 1633. It found Galileo vehemently suspected of heresy. It also explicitly banned *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*. These details can be found in [the sentence on the Museo Galileo website](https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/SentenceCondemnationGalileo.html).\n\n\u003e I, Galileo Galilei, have abjured as stated above and sign with my own hand.\n\nThis is Galileo Galilei's handwritten confirmation in *Galileo's Abjuration*, dated June 22, 1633.\n\nThe wording of the punishment in the sentence must be distinguished from his subsequent living conditions. The sentence specified imprisonment by the Inquisition. In practice, his subsequent supervision took the form of house arrest, restricting where he could live. The fact that he stayed at home does not mean he was allowed to conduct research freely.\n\n## Timeline from the trial to publication\n\nBetween the trial and publication came restrictions on his residence and efforts to pass the manuscript through intermediaries. After the trial, Galileo stayed at the archbishop's residence in Siena. Restrictions continued after he returned to Arcetri at the end of the same year.\n\n| Date or period | Event | Supporting source |\n|---|---|---|\n| February 26, 1616 | Warned not to hold, teach, or defend heliocentrism | Museo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life |\n| 1632 | *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems* published | Museo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life |\n| June 22, 1633 | Conviction and abjuration of his position | The sentence and chronology of his life |\n| After the 1633 trial | Stayed at Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini's residence in Siena | Museo Galileo's account of his work |\n| December 1, 1633 | Granted permission to return to Arcetri, with contact with visitors for scientific discussion prohibited | Museo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life |\n| February and March 1635 | Micanzio informed Galileo by letter of a blanket ban on publishing his works | A 2025 study of the publication history |\n| 1636 | Elzevir agreed to publish *Two New Sciences* | Museo Galileo's account of his work |\n| July 1638 | Printing of *Two New Sciences* completed in Leiden | Museo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life |\n| January 8, 1642 | Died in Arcetri | Museo Galileo's account of his residence |\n\nThe date permission to return was granted is not the same as the date of actual arrival. December 1 in the museum's chronology is the date permission was granted. When citing the chronology, the nature of the event must also be stated. The correspondence between dates and events follows [the museum's chronology of Galileo's life](https://www.museogalileo.it/en/galileo/life.html).\n\n## How did research continue under house arrest?\n\nGalileo reorganized his long-standing research on motion and matter. The contents of *Two New Sciences* were not developed entirely after the trial. He continued reviewing earlier research and refining his arguments.\n\nHis residence in Arcetri was a villa called Il Gioiello. The conditions of his return included a ban on contact with visitors who would discuss scientific matters. This restriction is stated in [Museo Galileo's account of the villa](https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/VillaGioiello.html).\n\nEven so, scholarly exchange continued through letters and manuscripts. Contacts abroad read the manuscript and sent comments. The arrangements needed for publication also proceeded through this network. The continuation of research should not be interpreted to mean that all exchanges were permitted.\n\nDeclining health also made writing more difficult. The museum's chronology records his blindness in 1638. However, the date of his blindness cannot be taken as the date when the entire book was written. The book includes research written earlier.\n\n## The overseas contacts that made publication in Leiden possible\n\nThe turning point in publication came when the manuscript reached publishers abroad. The ban on granting printing permission for Galileo's works was also an obstacle to his new book on mechanics. Leiden was not a place where the Roman Inquisition's ban was enforced in the same way.\n\nMuseo Galileo describes Fulgenzio Micanzio's role as an intermediary. Micanzio helped get the manuscript to Elzevir in the Netherlands. Elia Diodati was another key figure in the network working toward publication. Several people were involved in passing on the manuscript and negotiating publication.\n\n| Person or party | Documented role in publication | Type of evidence |\n|---|---|---|\n| Galileo | Organized the research, wrote the manuscript, and took part in the publication process | Research analyzing manuscripts and letters |\n| Fulgenzio Micanzio | Acted as an intermediary in passing on the manuscript and preparing it for printing | Museum accounts of individuals and works |\n| Elia Diodati | Took part in overseas publication negotiations and plans to conceal the author's involvement | A 2025 study of handwriting and letters |\n| The Elzevir publishers | Printed and published the book in Leiden | Bibliographic records of the first edition and the museum's chronology |\n\nThe dedication describes events as though the news of publication had come as a surprise. However, it is difficult to treat this as evidence that the author was not involved in publication. A 2025 study presents evidence of Galileo's active involvement. This interpretation is based on [a paper analyzing manuscripts and letters](https://gal-studies.museogalileo.it/index.php/galilaeana/article/view/63).\n\n## What did Two New Sciences explain?\n\nThe book's two central subjects are the strength of materials and the motion of bodies. The strength of materials is their ability to withstand forces without breaking. The research on motion covers topics such as falling bodies and the paths of thrown objects. [The University of Oklahoma Libraries' description of its copy](https://galileo.ou.edu/exhibits/discourse-two-new-sciences.html) also presents this distinction.\n\n| Subject | Questions addressed in the book | Explanation to aid understanding |\n|---|---|---|\n| Strength of materials | The size and shape of bodies and their resistance to breaking | Whether a large structure can be built by scaling up a small one in the same proportions |\n| Falling motion | The laws governing the motion of falling bodies | Explaining falling motion through mathematical relationships |\n| Parabolic motion | The path traced by a thrown object | Explaining projectile motion mathematically |\n\nThe discussion of materials also includes an explanation of the bones of large animals. To support a larger body, the thickness of the bones must also change. The point is that simply enlarging a body in the same proportions is not enough. This shows that the book's concerns were not limited to celestial matters.\n\nThe book takes the form of a dialogue among Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicio. This dialogue is a literary form used to develop arguments. It is not a transcript of the actual trial. The characters' statements should not be quoted as though they were courtroom testimony.\n\nIts title also needs to be distinguished from *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems*. The two books differ in their publication dates and central subjects. *Two New Sciences* is not a judicial ruling that directly proved heliocentrism.\n\n| Work | Year of publication | Main subject |\n|---|---|---|\n| *Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems* | 1632 | Discussion of the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems of the universe |\n| *Two New Sciences* | 1638 | Research on the strength of materials and motion |\n\n## What manuscript arrangement and shelf marks tell us\n\nThe sequence of discoveries cannot be reconstructed from the page order of a manuscript alone. Codex 72 at the National Central Library of Florence is one example. It preserves drafts in the handwriting of Galileo and his pupils.\n\nThe Max Planck Institute for the History of Science describes a mixture of text, diagrams, and calculations. Much of the material is connected to the theorems on motion in *Two New Sciences*. The institute has linked the relevant theorems and drafts so that readers can find them. Its explanation appears in [“Contents of the Manuscript”](https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN/CONTENTS.HTM).\n\nThe drafts were written at different times. Their current arrangement does not follow the order in which they were written. A draft appearing later in the manuscript therefore cannot be assumed to represent a later discovery. Understanding the writing done after the trial requires examining the nature of each record.\n\nA 2015 publication from the National Library of Spain also introduces this book. It lists the 1638 work under the shelf mark 3/r49976. This is a way to identify an item in the collection. It is not an indication of when Galileo wrote it.\n\n| Marker in the record | What it establishes | What that marker alone cannot establish |\n|---|---|---|\n| The date 1638 in the first edition | The year of publication | The year in which all the research was conducted |\n| The page order of Codex 72 | The current arrangement of the material | The chronological order of discovery and writing |\n| A library shelf mark | Identification of an item at that institution | When the manuscript was written or how publication was negotiated |\n\nThese distinctions are useful when reading records from several countries together. Museum chronologies and manuscripts answer different questions. Library bibliographic records are used to confirm a book's edition and holdings information. The Spanish holdings information can be found in [the search index of the National Library's publication](https://www.bne.es/sites/default/files/redBNE/Publicaciones/OtrasPublicaciones/jornada-cartografia-2015.pdf).\n\n## How far do records and interpretations agree?\n\nThe sentence and publication are documented events, but interpreting the publication strategy involves judgment. The author's dedication must also be read with its purpose in mind. What historical sources say needs to be distinguished from the judgments of later researchers.\n\n### Facts established by the records\n\nThe sentence shows the basis for the abjuration and the ban on the book. The chronology of Galileo's life records permission to return and publication in 1638. Codex 72 preserves research drafts connected to the published book. These materials provide evidence from different stages.\n\n### Points commonly explained in the research\n\nMuseum accounts and studies of publication history recognize the role of overseas contacts. *Two New Sciences* is described as a work bringing together many years of research. Its publication is not seen as a victory in the trial held during his lifetime. The Vatican Observatory's biographical account also explicitly states that he remained under house arrest for the rest of his life.\n\n### Hypotheses and points requiring caution\n\nThe 2025 paper proposes that Diodati wrote the relevant manuscript. This is based on handwriting comparisons and a reconstruction of publication activities. It must be distinguished as a hypothesis put forward by that study. The dedication alone also cannot establish the actual extent of Galileo's involvement.\n\n## The outcome of publication and its meaning today\n\nThe publication of *Two New Sciences* provided a channel for communicating research on mechanics. It did not result in Galileo's release from house arrest. He spent the rest of his life with his freedom restricted. This is also confirmed in [the Vatican Observatory's biographical account](https://www.vaticanobservatory.org/resources/galileo/historical-events/galileo-a-quick-summary/).\n\nThis case encourages us to examine the Scientific Revolution through both research findings and the processes by which they circulated. Writing required the work of organizing arguments. Publication required people to pass on the manuscript and take charge of printing. Readers today can compare the surviving drafts with the printed book.\n\n## Frequently asked questions\n\n### Was Galileo acquitted at his trial?\n\nGalileo was convicted at his trial in 1633. He recanted his position on heliocentrism. The publication of his book in 1638 should not be described as an acquittal or the lifting of his punishment.\n\n### Was Two New Sciences written entirely from scratch under house arrest?\n\nThe book includes research that began before his house arrest. Galileo organized and developed it under restrictions. The manuscripts were not all written at the same time either.\n\n### Why was it published in Leiden rather than Italy?\n\nBecause there was a ban on publishing Galileo's works. Overseas contacts connected the manuscript with the Elzevir publishers. In Leiden, the Roman Inquisition's ban was not enforced in the same way.\n\n### Did Two New Sciences prove heliocentrism?\n\nThe book focuses on the strength of materials and the motion of bodies. It also discusses the laws of falling bodies and the parabolic motion of projectiles. It is inaccurate to present it as a book that directly proved heliocentrism or overturned the trial's outcome.\n\n### Was Galileo completely unaware of the publication?\n\nThe dedication describes the news of publication as though it had come as a surprise. However, research on letters and manuscripts shows his involvement in publication. It is difficult to accept the dedication's account as a factual description of the entire publication process.\n\n### Is Codex 72 the complete manuscript of Two New Sciences?\n\nCodex 72 is a collection of drafts from different periods. It contains text, diagrams, and calculations. Some theorems are connected to the published book, but it is not the same as a complete manuscript of the entire book.\n\n### What does the National Library of Spain's material confirm?\n\nThe 2015 publication lists the 1638 work and its shelf mark. This provides a basis for identifying the library item. This information alone cannot establish the route by which the manuscript was passed on or the author's involvement in publication.","content_html":"\u003cp\u003eGalileo Galilei was placed under house arrest after his trial in 1633. With help from contacts abroad, he published \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cstrong\u003e1638\u003c/strong\u003e. This is remembered as a case in which research on mechanics was preserved in a book despite restrictions on the author's freedom.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article follows the records of Museo Galileo and the manuscripts, as checked in November 2026.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-was-restricted-at-the-1633-trial\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-was-restricted-at-the-1633-trial\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat was restricted at the 1633 trial?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGalileo was convicted by the Inquisition because of his position on heliocentrism. The background included a 1616 order not to defend heliocentrism. His \u003cem\u003eDialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\u003c/em\u003e, published in 1632, brought the issue before the Inquisition again.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sentence was handed down in Rome on June 22, 1633. It found Galileo vehemently suspected of heresy. It also explicitly banned \u003cem\u003eDialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\u003c/em\u003e. These details can be found in \u003ca href=\"https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/SentenceCondemnationGalileo.html\"\u003ethe sentence on the Museo Galileo website\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cblockquote\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI, Galileo Galilei, have abjured as stated above and sign with my own hand.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis is Galileo Galilei's handwritten confirmation in \u003cem\u003eGalileo's Abjuration\u003c/em\u003e, dated June 22, 1633.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe wording of the punishment in the sentence must be distinguished from his subsequent living conditions. The sentence specified imprisonment by the Inquisition. In practice, his subsequent supervision took the form of house arrest, restricting where he could live. The fact that he stayed at home does not mean he was allowed to conduct research freely.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#timeline-from-the-trial-to-publication\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"timeline-from-the-trial-to-publication\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eTimeline from the trial to publication\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBetween the trial and publication came restrictions on his residence and efforts to pass the manuscript through intermediaries. After the trial, Galileo stayed at the archbishop's residence in Siena. Restrictions continued after he returned to Arcetri at the end of the same year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eDate or period\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eEvent\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSupporting source\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eFebruary 26, 1616\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eWarned not to hold, teach, or defend heliocentrism\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003e1632\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eDialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\u003c/em\u003e published\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eJune 22, 1633\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eConviction and abjuration of his position\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eThe sentence and chronology of his life\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eAfter the 1633 trial\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eStayed at Archbishop Ascanio Piccolomini's residence in Siena\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's account of his work\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eDecember 1, 1633\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eGranted permission to return to Arcetri, with contact with visitors for scientific discussion prohibited\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eFebruary and March 1635\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eMicanzio informed Galileo by letter of a blanket ban on publishing his works\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eA 2025 study of the publication history\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003e1636\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eElzevir agreed to publish \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's account of his work\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eJuly 1638\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003ePrinting of \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e completed in Leiden\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's chronology of Galileo's life\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Date or period\"\u003eJanuary 8, 1642\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eDied in Arcetri\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Supporting source\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's account of his residence\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe date permission to return was granted is not the same as the date of actual arrival. December 1 in the museum's chronology is the date permission was granted. When citing the chronology, the nature of the event must also be stated. The correspondence between dates and events follows \u003ca href=\"https://www.museogalileo.it/en/galileo/life.html\"\u003ethe museum's chronology of Galileo's life\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#how-did-research-continue-under-house-arrest\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"how-did-research-continue-under-house-arrest\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eHow did research continue under house arrest?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGalileo reorganized his long-standing research on motion and matter. The contents of \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e were not developed entirely after the trial. He continued reviewing earlier research and refining his arguments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHis residence in Arcetri was a villa called Il Gioiello. The conditions of his return included a ban on contact with visitors who would discuss scientific matters. This restriction is stated in \u003ca href=\"https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/VillaGioiello.html\"\u003eMuseo Galileo's account of the villa\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEven so, scholarly exchange continued through letters and manuscripts. Contacts abroad read the manuscript and sent comments. The arrangements needed for publication also proceeded through this network. The continuation of research should not be interpreted to mean that all exchanges were permitted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDeclining health also made writing more difficult. The museum's chronology records his blindness in 1638. However, the date of his blindness cannot be taken as the date when the entire book was written. The book includes research written earlier.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-overseas-contacts-that-made-publication-in-leiden-possible\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-overseas-contacts-that-made-publication-in-leiden-possible\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe overseas contacts that made publication in Leiden possible\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe turning point in publication came when the manuscript reached publishers abroad. The ban on granting printing permission for Galileo's works was also an obstacle to his new book on mechanics. Leiden was not a place where the Roman Inquisition's ban was enforced in the same way.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuseo Galileo describes Fulgenzio Micanzio's role as an intermediary. Micanzio helped get the manuscript to Elzevir in the Netherlands. Elia Diodati was another key figure in the network working toward publication. Several people were involved in passing on the manuscript and negotiating publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003ePerson or party\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eDocumented role in publication\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eType of evidence\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Person or party\"\u003eGalileo\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Documented role in publication\"\u003eOrganized the research, wrote the manuscript, and took part in the publication process\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of evidence\"\u003eResearch analyzing manuscripts and letters\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Person or party\"\u003eFulgenzio Micanzio\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Documented role in publication\"\u003eActed as an intermediary in passing on the manuscript and preparing it for printing\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of evidence\"\u003eMuseum accounts of individuals and works\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Person or party\"\u003eElia Diodati\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Documented role in publication\"\u003eTook part in overseas publication negotiations and plans to conceal the author's involvement\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of evidence\"\u003eA 2025 study of handwriting and letters\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Person or party\"\u003eThe Elzevir publishers\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Documented role in publication\"\u003ePrinted and published the book in Leiden\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Type of evidence\"\u003eBibliographic records of the first edition and the museum's chronology\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dedication describes events as though the news of publication had come as a surprise. However, it is difficult to treat this as evidence that the author was not involved in publication. A 2025 study presents evidence of Galileo's active involvement. This interpretation is based on \u003ca href=\"https://gal-studies.museogalileo.it/index.php/galilaeana/article/view/63\"\u003ea paper analyzing manuscripts and letters\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-did-two-new-sciences-explain\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-did-two-new-sciences-explain\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat did Two New Sciences explain?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe book's two central subjects are the strength of materials and the motion of bodies. The strength of materials is their ability to withstand forces without breaking. The research on motion covers topics such as falling bodies and the paths of thrown objects. \u003ca href=\"https://galileo.ou.edu/exhibits/discourse-two-new-sciences.html\"\u003eThe University of Oklahoma Libraries' description of its copy\u003c/a\u003e also presents this distinction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSubject\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eQuestions addressed in the book\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eExplanation to aid understanding\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Subject\"\u003eStrength of materials\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Questions addressed in the book\"\u003eThe size and shape of bodies and their resistance to breaking\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Explanation to aid understanding\"\u003eWhether a large structure can be built by scaling up a small one in the same proportions\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Subject\"\u003eFalling motion\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Questions addressed in the book\"\u003eThe laws governing the motion of falling bodies\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Explanation to aid understanding\"\u003eExplaining falling motion through mathematical relationships\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Subject\"\u003eParabolic motion\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Questions addressed in the book\"\u003eThe path traced by a thrown object\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Explanation to aid understanding\"\u003eExplaining projectile motion mathematically\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe discussion of materials also includes an explanation of the bones of large animals. To support a larger body, the thickness of the bones must also change. The point is that simply enlarging a body in the same proportions is not enough. This shows that the book's concerns were not limited to celestial matters.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe book takes the form of a dialogue among Salviati, Sagredo, and Simplicio. This dialogue is a literary form used to develop arguments. It is not a transcript of the actual trial. The characters' statements should not be quoted as though they were courtroom testimony.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIts title also needs to be distinguished from \u003cem\u003eDialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\u003c/em\u003e. The two books differ in their publication dates and central subjects. \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e is not a judicial ruling that directly proved heliocentrism.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWork\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eYear of publication\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMain subject\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Work\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eDialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year of publication\"\u003e1632\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main subject\"\u003eDiscussion of the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems of the universe\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Work\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year of publication\"\u003e1638\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Main subject\"\u003eResearch on the strength of materials and motion\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-manuscript-arrangement-and-shelf-marks-tell-us\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-manuscript-arrangement-and-shelf-marks-tell-us\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat manuscript arrangement and shelf marks tell us\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sequence of discoveries cannot be reconstructed from the page order of a manuscript alone. Codex 72 at the National Central Library of Florence is one example. It preserves drafts in the handwriting of Galileo and his pupils.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Max Planck Institute for the History of Science describes a mixture of text, diagrams, and calculations. Much of the material is connected to the theorems on motion in \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e. The institute has linked the relevant theorems and drafts so that readers can find them. Its explanation appears in \u003ca href=\"https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN/CONTENTS.HTM\"\u003e“Contents of the Manuscript”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe drafts were written at different times. Their current arrangement does not follow the order in which they were written. A draft appearing later in the manuscript therefore cannot be assumed to represent a later discovery. Understanding the writing done after the trial requires examining the nature of each record.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA 2015 publication from the National Library of Spain also introduces this book. It lists the 1638 work under the shelf mark 3/r49976. This is a way to identify an item in the collection. It is not an indication of when Galileo wrote it.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eMarker in the record\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhat it establishes\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhat that marker alone cannot establish\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Marker in the record\"\u003eThe date 1638 in the first edition\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What it establishes\"\u003eThe year of publication\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What that marker alone cannot establish\"\u003eThe year in which all the research was conducted\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Marker in the record\"\u003eThe page order of Codex 72\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What it establishes\"\u003eThe current arrangement of the material\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What that marker alone cannot establish\"\u003eThe chronological order of discovery and writing\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Marker in the record\"\u003eA library shelf mark\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What it establishes\"\u003eIdentification of an item at that institution\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What that marker alone cannot establish\"\u003eWhen the manuscript was written or how publication was negotiated\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese distinctions are useful when reading records from several countries together. Museum chronologies and manuscripts answer different questions. Library bibliographic records are used to confirm a book's edition and holdings information. The Spanish holdings information can be found in \u003ca href=\"https://www.bne.es/sites/default/files/redBNE/Publicaciones/OtrasPublicaciones/jornada-cartografia-2015.pdf\"\u003ethe search index of the National Library's publication\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#how-far-do-records-and-interpretations-agree\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"how-far-do-records-and-interpretations-agree\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eHow far do records and interpretations agree?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sentence and publication are documented events, but interpreting the publication strategy involves judgment. The author's dedication must also be read with its purpose in mind. What historical sources say needs to be distinguished from the judgments of later researchers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#facts-established-by-the-records\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"facts-established-by-the-records\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFacts established by the records\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sentence shows the basis for the abjuration and the ban on the book. The chronology of Galileo's life records permission to return and publication in 1638. Codex 72 preserves research drafts connected to the published book. These materials provide evidence from different stages.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#points-commonly-explained-in-the-research\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"points-commonly-explained-in-the-research\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ePoints commonly explained in the research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMuseum accounts and studies of publication history recognize the role of overseas contacts. \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e is described as a work bringing together many years of research. Its publication is not seen as a victory in the trial held during his lifetime. The Vatican Observatory's biographical account also explicitly states that he remained under house arrest for the rest of his life.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#hypotheses-and-points-requiring-caution\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"hypotheses-and-points-requiring-caution\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eHypotheses and points requiring caution\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 2025 paper proposes that Diodati wrote the relevant manuscript. This is based on handwriting comparisons and a reconstruction of publication activities. It must be distinguished as a hypothesis put forward by that study. The dedication alone also cannot establish the actual extent of Galileo's involvement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-outcome-of-publication-and-its-meaning-today\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-outcome-of-publication-and-its-meaning-today\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe outcome of publication and its meaning today\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe publication of \u003cem\u003eTwo New Sciences\u003c/em\u003e provided a channel for communicating research on mechanics. It did not result in Galileo's release from house arrest. He spent the rest of his life with his freedom restricted. This is also confirmed in \u003ca href=\"https://www.vaticanobservatory.org/resources/galileo/historical-events/galileo-a-quick-summary/\"\u003ethe Vatican Observatory's biographical account\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis case encourages us to examine the Scientific Revolution through both research findings and the processes by which they circulated. Writing required the work of organizing arguments. Publication required people to pass on the manuscript and take charge of printing. Readers today can compare the surviving drafts with the printed book.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#frequently-asked-questions\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"frequently-asked-questions\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFrequently asked questions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-galileo-acquitted-at-his-trial\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-galileo-acquitted-at-his-trial\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas Galileo acquitted at his trial?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGalileo was convicted at his trial in 1633. He recanted his position on heliocentrism. The publication of his book in 1638 should not be described as an acquittal or the lifting of his punishment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-two-new-sciences-written-entirely-from-scratch-under-house-arrest\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-two-new-sciences-written-entirely-from-scratch-under-house-arrest\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas Two New Sciences written entirely from scratch under house arrest?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe book includes research that began before his house arrest. Galileo organized and developed it under restrictions. The manuscripts were not all written at the same time either.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#why-was-it-published-in-leiden-rather-than-italy\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"why-was-it-published-in-leiden-rather-than-italy\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhy was it published in Leiden rather than Italy?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBecause there was a ban on publishing Galileo's works. Overseas contacts connected the manuscript with the Elzevir publishers. In Leiden, the Roman Inquisition's ban was not enforced in the same way.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-two-new-sciences-prove-heliocentrism\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-two-new-sciences-prove-heliocentrism\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid Two New Sciences prove heliocentrism?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe book focuses on the strength of materials and the motion of bodies. It also discusses the laws of falling bodies and the parabolic motion of projectiles. It is inaccurate to present it as a book that directly proved heliocentrism or overturned the trial's outcome.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-galileo-completely-unaware-of-the-publication\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-galileo-completely-unaware-of-the-publication\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas Galileo completely unaware of the publication?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dedication describes the news of publication as though it had come as a surprise. However, research on letters and manuscripts shows his involvement in publication. It is difficult to accept the dedication's account as a factual description of the entire publication process.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#is-codex-72-the-complete-manuscript-of-two-new-sciences\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"is-codex-72-the-complete-manuscript-of-two-new-sciences\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eIs Codex 72 the complete manuscript of Two New Sciences?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCodex 72 is a collection of drafts from different periods. It contains text, diagrams, and calculations. Some theorems are connected to the published book, but it is not the same as a complete manuscript of the entire book.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-does-the-national-library-of-spains-material-confirm\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-does-the-national-library-of-spains-material-confirm\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat does the National Library of Spain's material confirm?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 2015 publication lists the 1638 work and its shelf mark. This provides a basis for identifying the library item. This information alone cannot establish the route by which the manuscript was passed on or the author's involvement in publication.\u003c/p\u003e\n","tags":["Cultural heritage","History of science","Galileo"],"faqs":[{"question":"Was Galileo acquitted at his trial in 1633?","answer":"Galileo was found guilty and recanted his position on heliocentrism. He continued his research under house arrest afterward. The publication of Two New Sciences does not mean that the verdict was overturned."},{"question":"When was Galileo granted permission to return to Arcetri?","answer":"The Museo Galileo timeline records December 1, 1633, as the date he was granted permission to return. Contact with visitors to discuss scientific matters was prohibited. The date permission was granted should not be confused with his actual arrival date."},{"question":"When and where was Two New Sciences published?","answer":"Two New Sciences was published in 1638 in Leiden, in the Netherlands. Elzevir handled the publication. The Museo Galileo timeline records that printing was completed in July of that year."},{"question":"Why was it published in Leiden?","answer":"Galileo's writings were subject to a publication ban. His contacts abroad brought the manuscript to Elzevir. Leiden was not a place where the Roman Inquisition's ban was enforced in the same way."},{"question":"What are the two sciences in Two New Sciences?","answer":"The two central subjects are the strength of materials and the motion of bodies. The strength of materials refers to the ability of bodies to resist breaking. The study of motion includes falling bodies and the parabolic motion of projectiles."},{"question":"Is Two New Sciences a book that proved heliocentrism?","answer":"The book focuses on research in mechanics. It is inaccurate to present it as a book that directly proved heliocentrism or as a document that overturned the trial's outcome."},{"question":"Was Galileo directly involved in the publication?","answer":"Research analyzing letters and manuscripts shows Galileo's involvement in the publication. The dedication describes him as having learned of the publication unexpectedly. These two kinds of records should be read with their differing nature in mind."},{"question":"What can be found in Codex 72?","answer":"It contains research drafts in the handwriting of Galileo and his students. Much of the text, diagrams, and calculations is connected to the theorems on motion in Two New Sciences. The current page order is not the order in which they were written."},{"question":"Are the dialogues in the book actual trial records?","answer":"The dialogues in the book are a literary form used to develop scientific arguments. They are not records of actual trial proceedings. The characters' statements should not be cited as courtroom testimony."}],"sources":[{"url":"https://www.museogalileo.it/en/galileo/life.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Life: Chronology of the main events of Galileo's biography","type":"source"},{"url":"https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/SentenceCondemnationGalileo.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Sentence of condemnation of Galileo","type":"source"},{"url":"https://catalogue.museogalileo.it/indepth/VillaGioiello.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Villa Il Gioiello","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/Galileo_Prototype/MAIN/CONTENTS.HTM","title":"Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Contents of the Manuscript and its relation to the Discorsi","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www2.museogalileo.it/it/biblioteca-e-istituto-di-ricerca/progetti/incontra-galileo/31-opere/461-discorsi-e-dimostrazioni-matematiche-intorno-a-due-nuove-scienze-1638.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze: An account of its publication history","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www2.museogalileo.it/en/library-and-research-institute/projects/meet-galileo/38-works/470-discorsi-e-dimostrazioni-matematiche-intorno-a-due-nuove-scienze-1638.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche intorno a due nuove scienze (1638)","type":"source"},{"url":"https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/itineraries/biography/FulgenzioMicanzio.html","title":"Galileo Museum, Fulgenzio Micanzio","type":"source"},{"url":"https://gal-studies.museogalileo.it/index.php/galilaeana/article/view/63","title":"Lucia Bucciarelli, Navigating censorship: Galileo and Diodati’s plan for the publication of the Two New Sciences, 2025","type":"source"},{"url":"https://galileo.ou.edu/exhibits/discourse-two-new-sciences.html","title":"University of Oklahoma Libraries, Discourse on Two New Sciences","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.bne.es/sites/default/files/redBNE/Publicaciones/OtrasPublicaciones/jornada-cartografia-2015.pdf","title":"National Library of Spain, I Jornada de Cartografía: Difundiendo la cartografía antigua, 2015","type":"data_point"},{"url":"https://www.vaticanobservatory.org/resources/galileo/historical-events/galileo-a-quick-summary/","title":"Vatican Observatory, Galileo: A Quick Summary","type":"source"}],"images":[{"id":2792,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6NDI3MDAsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--5e36028ab2c382d3520e44ff50be164d24bb8f5d/ai-4d2bb3c8.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"원고와 깃펜이 놓인 책상, 경사면과 추 실험 장치, 열린 창문과 닫힌 문이 있는 빈 서재","caption":"갈릴레오는 가택연금 중에도 운동과 재료의 강도에 관한 연구를 이어갔다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Empty study with manuscripts, a quill, an inclined ramp, a suspended weight, an open window and a closed door","caption":"Galileo continued studying motion and material strength while under house arrest.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"原稿と羽根ペンのある机、斜面と重りの実験装置、開いた窓と閉じた扉がある無人の書斎","caption":"ガリレオは自宅軟禁中も、運動と材料の強度に関する研究を続けた。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Estudio vacío con manuscritos, pluma, rampa, pesa suspendida, ventana abierta y puerta cerrada","caption":"Galileo siguió investigando el movimiento y la resistencia de los materiales durante su arresto domiciliario.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Ruang kerja kosong dengan manuskrip, pena bulu, bidang miring, beban gantung, jendela terbuka dan pintu tertutup","caption":"Galileo terus meneliti gerak dan kekuatan bahan selama menjalani tahanan rumah.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Escritório vazio com manuscritos, pena, rampa, peso suspenso, janela aberta e porta fechada","caption":"Galileu continuou pesquisando o movimento e a resistência dos materiais durante sua prisão domiciliar.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"無人的書房內，桌上放著手稿與羽毛筆，旁有斜面及懸掛砝碼的實驗裝置，窗戶敞開，房門緊閉","caption":"伽利略在遭軟禁期間，仍持續研究運動與材料強度。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Leeres Arbeitszimmer mit Manuskripten, Feder, schiefer Ebene, Hängegewicht, offenem Fenster und geschlossener Tür","caption":"Galilei erforschte auch während seines Hausarrests die Bewegung und die Festigkeit von Materialien.","description":null}}},{"id":2793,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6NDI3MDYsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--77dd693c6090c1ea128e261f3304f5126ea9ab45/ai-d98b98a3.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"목제 나사식 인쇄기와 종이 더미가 놓인 인쇄소에서 두 작업자가 인쇄와 종이 정리를 하는 삽화","caption":"『새로운 두 과학』은 해외 인맥의 중개를 거쳐 1638년 레이던에서 출간됐다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Illustration of two workers operating a wooden screw press and sorting paper in a printing workshop.","caption":"Galileo’s Two New Sciences was published in Leiden in 1638 through contacts abroad.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"木製のねじ式印刷機と紙の束が並ぶ工房で、二人の職人が印刷と紙の整理をする挿絵","caption":"ガリレオの『新科学対話』は海外の人脈の仲介を経て、1638年にライデンで出版された。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Ilustración de dos trabajadores que manejan una prensa de tornillo de madera y ordenan papel en una imprenta.","caption":"Dos nuevas ciencias de Galileo se publicó en Leiden en 1638 gracias a la mediación de contactos en el extranjero.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Ilustrasi dua pekerja mengoperasikan mesin cetak ulir kayu dan menata kertas di percetakan.","caption":"Dua Ilmu Baru karya Galileo diterbitkan di Leiden pada 1638 melalui perantaraan jaringan di luar negeri.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Ilustração de dois trabalhadores operando uma prensa de parafuso de madeira e organizando papel numa oficina.","caption":"Duas Novas Ciências, de Galileu, foi publicado em Leiden em 1638 por intermédio de contatos no exterior.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"插畫中，兩名工人在擺有木製螺旋印刷機與成疊紙張的印刷工坊內印刷、整理紙張。","caption":"伽利略的《兩門新科學》經海外人脈居中協助，於1638年在萊頓出版。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Illustration zweier Arbeiter an einer hölzernen Schraubenpresse und beim Ordnen von Papier in einer Druckerei.","caption":"Galileis Zwei neue Wissenschaften erschien 1638 durch die Vermittlung von Auslandskontakten in Leiden.","description":null}}}],"published_at":"2026-11-13T04:05:01+09:00","updated_at":"2026-11-13T04:05:01+09:00","license":"cc_by","translation_status":"reviewed","available_locales":["ko","en","ja","es"],"data_locales":["ko","en","ja","es","id","pt","zh-hant","de"],"url":"https://injoys.com/en/articles/galileo-galilei-1638-two-new-sciences-publication"}