{"content_id":"qdxu2hs1bx","slug":"seo-hui-993-diplomacy-gangdong-six-prefectures","locale":"en","schema_type":"Article","category":"case_study","category_name":"Case Study","title":"Seo Hui’s 993 Negotiation and the Six Garrisons of Gangdong","summary":"Seo Hui negotiated with Xiao Sunning during the Khitan invasion of 993, securing a withdrawal and laying the groundwork for expansion east of the Yalu River. After the negotiations, Goryeo drove back Jurchen forces and built fortresses, turning the Six Garrisons of Gangdong into defensive strongholds.","sponsorship_disclosure":null,"affiliate_disclosure":null,"commerce_disclosure":null,"author":{"name":"Injoys Editorial Team","url":"https://injoys.com/ko/about"},"key_points":["Seo Hui’s diplomatic negotiation brought the Khitan’s first invasion under King Seongjong in 993 to an end.","Goryeo forces’ military response in holding off the Khitan army at Anyungjin set the stage for negotiations.","Seo Hui based his negotiating case on Goryeo’s claim to Goguryeo’s legacy and the problem of routes blocked by the Jurchen.","Securing the Six Garrisons of Gangdong was followed by fortification and stronger regional control after 994.","In exchange for securing northern strongholds, Goryeo had to adjust its diplomatic relations with the Khitan."],"content_markdown":"Seo Hui negotiated with So Sonnyeong during the Khitan invasion of 993 and secured the withdrawal of Khitan forces. The negotiations laid the foundation for expansion east of the Yalu River. The event is remembered for securing the Six Prefectures of Gangdong through subsequent fortress construction and expanding Goryeo's northern defenses.\n\nThis article follows the 『Goryeosa』 in the Korean History Database of the National Institute of Korean History and was checked in September 2026.\n\n## Who was Seo Hui?\n\nSeo Hui was a civil official and diplomat during the early Goryeo period. He was born in 942 and died in 998. After passing the state civil service examination in 960, he served in central government posts.\n\nIn 972, he was sent as an envoy to Song. During the Khitan invasion of 993, he also took military command as commander of the central army. His involvement in diplomatic negotiations and postwar fortress construction is summarized in the [Encyclopedia of Korean Culture entry “Seo Hui”](https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028321).\n\n## Background to the Khitan invasion of 993\n\nOne purpose of the Khitan invasion was to prevent Goryeo and Song from growing closer. At the time, the Liao dynasty founded by the Khitan was in conflict with Song. If Goryeo also cooperated with Song, the Khitan would have to guard its eastern side as well.\n\nGoryeo's northern expansion policy also heightened tensions between the two countries. Jurchen forces were established along the lower Yalu River. The Khitan expanded their influence by attacking the Jurchens and the Jeongan Kingdom of Balhae refugees.\n\nThis region was a transportation corridor connecting the continent and the Korean Peninsula. Goryeo also sought to advance northward and secure strongholds. The war therefore arose from both diplomatic relations and control of the border. [Our History Net’s “Seo Hui”](https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_n202300) explains the region's strategic conditions.\n\n## The fall of Bongsan-gun and the proposal to cede territory\n\nThe defeat at Bongsan-gun prompted proposals within the Goryeo court to cede territory. So Sonnyeong's army attacked Bongsan-gun and defeated Goryeo's vanguard. It then demanded Goryeo's surrender.\n\nSome at court proposed giving up the land north of Seogyeong. Seogyeong corresponds to present-day Pyongyang. Seongjong also considered accepting the territorial cession proposal for a time.\n\nSeo Hui opposed surrendering land before determining whether it could be defended. He considered both the justification for defending the land and Goryeo's ability to wage war. The following summarizes the arguments recorded in the 『Goryeosa』.\n\n- If the claim based solely on the land having once belonged to Goguryeo was accepted, it would be difficult to prevent further demands.\n- Food supplies had to be preserved to defend the fortresses and fight.\n- The terms of peace could be assessed after responding militarily first.\n\nSeongjong also withdrew his order to dump Seogyeong's remaining grain into the river. This was because Seo Hui opposed it on the grounds of defense and the people's livelihoods. This process is recorded in [Volume 94 of the 『Goryeosa』, the Biography of Seo Hui](https://db.history.go.kr/id/kr_094r_0010_0010_0040).\n\n## The turning point in negotiations and So Sonnyeong's demands\n\nThe successful defense of Anyongjin became the turning point that led to negotiations. Goryeo forces led by Daedosu and Yu Bang repelled the Khitan attack. Unable to advance further, the Khitan army pressed Goryeo to surrender.\n\nSeo Hui saw the possibility of negotiations in the repeated demands for surrender. He then went to So Sonnyeong's camp carrying a state letter from Seongjong. [The explanation of the first invasion in the 『New History of Korea』](https://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_015_0030_0030) connects the military resistance with the negotiations.\n\nThe negotiations centered on Goguryeo's former territory and diplomatic relations between the two countries. So Sonnyeong took issue with Goryeo's territory and its exchanges with Song. Seo Hui combined Goryeo's historical claim with the issue of securing transportation routes.\n\n| Issue | So Sonnyeong's claims and demands | Seo Hui's response |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Succession to Goguryeo | Claim that the Khitan had the right to occupy Goguryeo's former territory | Counterargument that Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo |\n| Relations between Goryeo and Song | Criticism that Goryeo maintained exchanges with Song despite the closer Khitan | Raised the issue of the Jurchens blocking exchanges with the Khitan |\n| Border and transportation routes | Demanded that Goryeo cede territory and send envoys | Proposed driving out the Jurchens and securing fortresses and roads |\n\nSeo Hui proposed changing the conditions necessary for exchanges with the Khitan. He linked Goryeo's northern expansion to securing transportation routes between the two countries. The negotiations and subsequent diplomatic contacts can be found in [Our History Net’s “Seo Hui’s Diplomatic Negotiations”](https://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?levelId=hm_048_0020).\n\n## Timeline from negotiations to fortress construction\n\nThe agreement of 993 was followed by fortress construction over several years. The Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records this by year. The fortress place names below are based on the translation of that biography.\n\n| Year | Event | Source |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| 993, Seongjong's 12th year | Khitan invasion, defense of Anyongjin, and negotiations between Seo Hui and So Sonnyeong | Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 |\n| 994, Seongjong's 13th year | Drove out the Jurchens and built fortresses at Jangheungjin, Gwihwajin, Gwakju, and Gwiju | Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 |\n| 995, Seongjong's 14th year | Built fortresses at Anuijin and Heunghwajin | Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 |\n| 996, Seongjong's 15th year | Built fortresses at Seonju and Maengju | Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 |\n| 1010, Hyeonjong's 1st year | Second Khitan invasion | Our History Net, “Six Prefectures of Gangdong” |\n| 1018, Hyeonjong's 9th year | Third Khitan invasion began | Our History Net, “Battle of Gwiju” |\n| 1019, Hyeonjong's 10th year | Battle of Gwiju fought by Goryeo forces led by Gang Gamchan | Our History Net, “Battle of Gwiju” |\n\n## Where were the Six Prefectures of Gangdong, and how were they secured?\n\nThe Six Prefectures of Gangdong were Goryeo strongholds east of the lower Yalu River. They generally refer to Heunghwa, Yongju, Tongju, Cheolju, Gwiju, and Gwakju. Depending on the source, Gwiju is also written as Guju.\n\nControl of all six regions was not completed immediately after the negotiations. Goryeo had to drive out Jurchen forces and build fortresses. This work turned the results of the negotiations into actual control of the region.\n\nThe place names in the fortress construction timeline do not exactly match the usual list of the Six Prefectures. The former records the places where Seo Hui built fortresses by year. The latter lists the regional names collectively known as the Six Prefectures of Gangdong. The difference between the lists cannot immediately be regarded as an error in the negotiations.\n\nThe region was also not empty, uninhabited land. Jurchen residents and forces were present there. Goryeo's territorial expansion also involved the military process of pushing them out. The region's extent and development process are explained in [Our History Net’s “Six Prefectures of Gangdong”](https://contents.history.go.kr/front/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_002_1060\u0026treeId=0200).\n\n## What Goryeo gained and the diplomatic conditions it accepted\n\nIn return for securing strongholds along the lower Yalu River, Goryeo adjusted its relationship with the Khitan. Tributary visits involving the dispatch of envoys were how this was implemented. The use of the Khitan era name was also a condition reflecting relations between the two countries.\n\nThe Khitan also gained the benefit of establishing direct diplomatic relations with Goryeo. This served their goal of checking closer relations between Goryeo and Song. The negotiations can therefore be seen as a compromise reflecting the interests of both countries.\n\n| Category | What Goryeo gained | Remaining conditions and tasks |\n| --- | --- | --- |\n| Ending the war | Withdrawal of the Khitan army | Establishment of diplomatic relations with the Khitan |\n| Northern expansion | Foundation for expansion east of the Yalu River | Conflict with Jurchen forces and fortress construction |\n| Defense system | Military strongholds in the Six Prefectures of Gangdong | Burden of defending against subsequent invasions |\n\nChanges in relations with Song also did not end with a single moment in the negotiations. Han Jeongsu's 2023 study addresses Seongjong's later requests to Song for military support. The diplomatic agreement and the actual development of policy need to be distinguished. This interpretation can be found in the [abstract of the study on the construction of fortresses in the Six Prefectures of Gangdong](https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11667101).\n\n## Why did Seongjong and Seo Hui disagree on when to establish diplomatic relations?\n\nThe two men differed over when to send envoys to the Khitan. Seo Hui recommended carrying out diplomatic formalities after securing additional territory. Seongjong wanted to establish relations quickly.\n\nThe Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records Seongjong's words as follows.\n\n\u003e If we do not establish diplomatic relations for a long time, I fear there will be trouble later.\n\nSeongjong ultimately sent Pak Yangyu to the Khitan. Seo Hui's recommendation can be read as a judgment that gave priority to securing territory first. Seongjong's decision can be interpreted as giving priority to the risks caused by delaying relations. This comparison is based on [the relevant record in the 『Goryeosa』](https://db.history.go.kr/id/kr_094r_0010_0010_0040).\n\nThis difference shows that policy choices remained even after the negotiations. Even after an agreement was reached, the sequence of securing territory and conducting diplomatic formalities remained a separate issue. Differences of judgment within the court continued during the implementation of the agreement.\n\n## The relationship between the Six Prefectures of Gangdong and later Khitan wars\n\nThe Six Prefectures of Gangdong became defensive strongholds against later Khitan invasions. At the same time, their possession again became a source of dispute between the two countries. The agreement of 993 did not guarantee lasting peace.\n\nThe Khitan invaded again in 1010 and 1018. The third invasion began in 1018. The Battle of Gwiju took place the following year, in 1019. The two years can be distinguished in [Our History Net’s “Battle of Gwiju”](https://contents.history.go.kr/front/kc/printViewPopup.do?levelId=kc_i200400).\n\n## Records and interpretations\n\nDescriptions in historical records must be distinguished from explanations by later researchers. The details of the negotiations are conveyed in the Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』. Assessments of the invasion's purpose and the negotiations' results involve researchers' analysis.\n\n### What the records confirm\n\nThe 『Goryeosa』 records the discussion of territorial cession and Seo Hui's counterarguments. The exchange with So Sonnyeong is followed by accounts of sending envoys and building fortresses. The sequence of the record alone makes it possible to distinguish the negotiations from the subsequent measures.\n\n### Widely used explanations\n\nThe National Institute of Korean History's explanations connect the Khitan effort to contain Song with Goryeo's northern expansion. They also treat Goryeo's military resistance as part of the background to the negotiations. This approach does not explain the entire process solely through Seo Hui's eloquence.\n\n### Areas emphasized differently in research\n\nStudies differ in the scope within which they assess the negotiations' results. Han Jeongsu's 2023 study points to differences between Seo Hui's fortress construction and Seongjong's policies. Kwon Yongcheol's 2024 study emphasizes the formation of a Khitan-centered international order.\n\nFrom the latter perspective, the Khitan also achieved some of their diplomatic goals. This interpretation can be explained alongside Goryeo's territorial gains. The argument is presented in the [abstract of “A Further Review of the Background to the Khitan’s First Invasion of Goryeo”](https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/landing/article.kci?arti_id=ART003071929).\n\n### Figures that are difficult to confirm\n\nThe figure of 800,000 Khitan troops is difficult to establish as the actual number mobilized. In the 『Goryeosa』, it appears as a number invoked by So Sonnyeong as a threat. The 『New History of Korea』 also describes it as a label rather than the actual troop strength.\n\n## What this event means for understanding it today\n\nThis event shows that ending a war and establishing territorial control were different stages. The conditions gained through negotiations had to be maintained through fortress construction and defense. Distinguishing them as follows makes the event's causal relationships clear.\n\n- The Battle of Anyongjin was a military response that stopped the Khitan army's advance.\n- Seo Hui's negotiations arranged the withdrawal and diplomatic relations.\n- The development of the Six Prefectures of Gangdong was the process of strengthening regional control after the agreement.\n- The Battle of Gwiju was a separate battle commanded by Gang Gamchan in 1019.\n\n## Frequently asked questions\n\n### When did Seo Hui's diplomatic negotiations take place?\n\nThey took place in 993, the 12th year of Goryeo's King Seongjong. They occurred during the process of ending the first Khitan invasion. The exact date in the solar calendar cannot be confirmed from the records reviewed.\n\n### Did Seo Hui defeat the Khitan without fighting?\n\nGoryeo and Khitan forces fought before the negotiations. In particular, the successful defense of Anyongjin provided the background for the negotiations. Military activity also followed the negotiations as Goryeo secured territory.\n\n### Did the Khitan simply hand over six territories they had governed as the Six Prefectures of Gangdong?\n\nIt is difficult to regard this as the direct transfer of six fully established administrative districts. Jurchen forces were based along the lower Yalu River. Goryeo strengthened its control through fortress construction and development after the negotiations.\n\n### Did the negotiations succeed solely because of the claim to Goguryeo succession?\n\nThe idea of succession to Goguryeo provided justification for resisting territorial demands. The actual proposal included the Jurchen issue and securing transportation routes. The condition of establishing diplomatic relations with the Khitan also played a role.\n\n### Was the acquisition of the Six Prefectures of Gangdong completed in 993?\n\n993 was the year when the negotiations laid the foundation for expansion. The Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records fortress construction after 994. The year of the negotiations must be distinguished from the process of consolidating the territory.\n\n### Were Seo Hui's negotiations and the Battle of Gwiju the same event?\n\nThey were different events. Seo Hui's negotiations were diplomatic negotiations in 993. The Battle of Gwiju was fought in 1019 by Goryeo forces led by Gang Gamchan.","content_html":"\u003cp\u003eSeo Hui negotiated with So Sonnyeong during the Khitan invasion of 993 and secured the withdrawal of Khitan forces. The negotiations laid the foundation for expansion east of the Yalu River. The event is remembered for securing the Six Prefectures of Gangdong through subsequent fortress construction and expanding Goryeo's northern defenses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis article follows the 『Goryeosa』 in the Korean History Database of the National Institute of Korean History and was checked in September 2026.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#who-was-seo-hui\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"who-was-seo-hui\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWho was Seo Hui?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeo Hui was a civil official and diplomat during the early Goryeo period. He was born in 942 and died in 998. After passing the state civil service examination in 960, he served in central government posts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 972, he was sent as an envoy to Song. During the Khitan invasion of 993, he also took military command as commander of the central army. His involvement in diplomatic negotiations and postwar fortress construction is summarized in the \u003ca href=\"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028321\"\u003eEncyclopedia of Korean Culture entry “Seo Hui”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#background-to-the-khitan-invasion-of-993\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"background-to-the-khitan-invasion-of-993\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eBackground to the Khitan invasion of 993\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOne purpose of the Khitan invasion was to prevent Goryeo and Song from growing closer. At the time, the Liao dynasty founded by the Khitan was in conflict with Song. If Goryeo also cooperated with Song, the Khitan would have to guard its eastern side as well.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGoryeo's northern expansion policy also heightened tensions between the two countries. Jurchen forces were established along the lower Yalu River. The Khitan expanded their influence by attacking the Jurchens and the Jeongan Kingdom of Balhae refugees.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis region was a transportation corridor connecting the continent and the Korean Peninsula. Goryeo also sought to advance northward and secure strongholds. The war therefore arose from both diplomatic relations and control of the border. \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_n202300\"\u003eOur History Net’s “Seo Hui”\u003c/a\u003e explains the region's strategic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-fall-of-bongsan-gun-and-the-proposal-to-cede-territory\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-fall-of-bongsan-gun-and-the-proposal-to-cede-territory\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe fall of Bongsan-gun and the proposal to cede territory\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe defeat at Bongsan-gun prompted proposals within the Goryeo court to cede territory. So Sonnyeong's army attacked Bongsan-gun and defeated Goryeo's vanguard. It then demanded Goryeo's surrender.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSome at court proposed giving up the land north of Seogyeong. Seogyeong corresponds to present-day Pyongyang. Seongjong also considered accepting the territorial cession proposal for a time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeo Hui opposed surrendering land before determining whether it could be defended. He considered both the justification for defending the land and Goryeo's ability to wage war. The following summarizes the arguments recorded in the 『Goryeosa』.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIf the claim based solely on the land having once belonged to Goguryeo was accepted, it would be difficult to prevent further demands.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFood supplies had to be preserved to defend the fortresses and fight.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe terms of peace could be assessed after responding militarily first.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeongjong also withdrew his order to dump Seogyeong's remaining grain into the river. This was because Seo Hui opposed it on the grounds of defense and the people's livelihoods. This process is recorded in \u003ca href=\"https://db.history.go.kr/id/kr_094r_0010_0010_0040\"\u003eVolume 94 of the 『Goryeosa』, the Biography of Seo Hui\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-turning-point-in-negotiations-and-so-sonnyeongs-demands\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-turning-point-in-negotiations-and-so-sonnyeongs-demands\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe turning point in negotiations and So Sonnyeong's demands\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe successful defense of Anyongjin became the turning point that led to negotiations. Goryeo forces led by Daedosu and Yu Bang repelled the Khitan attack. Unable to advance further, the Khitan army pressed Goryeo to surrender.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeo Hui saw the possibility of negotiations in the repeated demands for surrender. He then went to So Sonnyeong's camp carrying a state letter from Seongjong. \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_015_0030_0030\"\u003eThe explanation of the first invasion in the 『New History of Korea』\u003c/a\u003e connects the military resistance with the negotiations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe negotiations centered on Goguryeo's former territory and diplomatic relations between the two countries. So Sonnyeong took issue with Goryeo's territory and its exchanges with Song. Seo Hui combined Goryeo's historical claim with the issue of securing transportation routes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eIssue\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSo Sonnyeong's claims and demands\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSeo Hui's response\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eSuccession to Goguryeo\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"So Sonnyeong's claims and demands\"\u003eClaim that the Khitan had the right to occupy Goguryeo's former territory\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Seo Hui's response\"\u003eCounterargument that Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eRelations between Goryeo and Song\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"So Sonnyeong's claims and demands\"\u003eCriticism that Goryeo maintained exchanges with Song despite the closer Khitan\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Seo Hui's response\"\u003eRaised the issue of the Jurchens blocking exchanges with the Khitan\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Issue\"\u003eBorder and transportation routes\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"So Sonnyeong's claims and demands\"\u003eDemanded that Goryeo cede territory and send envoys\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Seo Hui's response\"\u003eProposed driving out the Jurchens and securing fortresses and roads\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeo Hui proposed changing the conditions necessary for exchanges with the Khitan. He linked Goryeo's northern expansion to securing transportation routes between the two countries. The negotiations and subsequent diplomatic contacts can be found in \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?levelId=hm_048_0020\"\u003eOur History Net’s “Seo Hui’s Diplomatic Negotiations”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#timeline-from-negotiations-to-fortress-construction\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"timeline-from-negotiations-to-fortress-construction\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eTimeline from negotiations to fortress construction\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe agreement of 993 was followed by fortress construction over several years. The Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records this by year. The fortress place names below are based on the translation of that biography.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eYear\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eEvent\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eSource\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e993, Seongjong's 12th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eKhitan invasion, defense of Anyongjin, and negotiations between Seo Hui and So Sonnyeong\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eBiography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e994, Seongjong's 13th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eDrove out the Jurchens and built fortresses at Jangheungjin, Gwihwajin, Gwakju, and Gwiju\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eBiography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e995, Seongjong's 14th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eBuilt fortresses at Anuijin and Heunghwajin\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eBiography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e996, Seongjong's 15th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eBuilt fortresses at Seonju and Maengju\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eBiography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e1010, Hyeonjong's 1st year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eSecond Khitan invasion\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eOur History Net, “Six Prefectures of Gangdong”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e1018, Hyeonjong's 9th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eThird Khitan invasion began\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eOur History Net, “Battle of Gwiju”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Year\"\u003e1019, Hyeonjong's 10th year\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Event\"\u003eBattle of Gwiju fought by Goryeo forces led by Gang Gamchan\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Source\"\u003eOur History Net, “Battle of Gwiju”\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#where-were-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-and-how-were-they-secured\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"where-were-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-and-how-were-they-secured\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhere were the Six Prefectures of Gangdong, and how were they secured?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Six Prefectures of Gangdong were Goryeo strongholds east of the lower Yalu River. They generally refer to Heunghwa, Yongju, Tongju, Cheolju, Gwiju, and Gwakju. Depending on the source, Gwiju is also written as Guju.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eControl of all six regions was not completed immediately after the negotiations. Goryeo had to drive out Jurchen forces and build fortresses. This work turned the results of the negotiations into actual control of the region.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe place names in the fortress construction timeline do not exactly match the usual list of the Six Prefectures. The former records the places where Seo Hui built fortresses by year. The latter lists the regional names collectively known as the Six Prefectures of Gangdong. The difference between the lists cannot immediately be regarded as an error in the negotiations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe region was also not empty, uninhabited land. Jurchen residents and forces were present there. Goryeo's territorial expansion also involved the military process of pushing them out. The region's extent and development process are explained in \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_002_1060\u0026amp;treeId=0200\"\u003eOur History Net’s “Six Prefectures of Gangdong”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-goryeo-gained-and-the-diplomatic-conditions-it-accepted\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-goryeo-gained-and-the-diplomatic-conditions-it-accepted\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat Goryeo gained and the diplomatic conditions it accepted\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn return for securing strongholds along the lower Yalu River, Goryeo adjusted its relationship with the Khitan. Tributary visits involving the dispatch of envoys were how this was implemented. The use of the Khitan era name was also a condition reflecting relations between the two countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Khitan also gained the benefit of establishing direct diplomatic relations with Goryeo. This served their goal of checking closer relations between Goryeo and Song. The negotiations can therefore be seen as a compromise reflecting the interests of both countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"overflow-x-auto\"\u003e\u003ctable\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eCategory\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eWhat Goryeo gained\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth\u003eRemaining conditions and tasks\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eEnding the war\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What Goryeo gained\"\u003eWithdrawal of the Khitan army\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining conditions and tasks\"\u003eEstablishment of diplomatic relations with the Khitan\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eNorthern expansion\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What Goryeo gained\"\u003eFoundation for expansion east of the Yalu River\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining conditions and tasks\"\u003eConflict with Jurchen forces and fortress construction\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Category\"\u003eDefense system\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"What Goryeo gained\"\u003eMilitary strongholds in the Six Prefectures of Gangdong\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd data-label=\"Remaining conditions and tasks\"\u003eBurden of defending against subsequent invasions\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChanges in relations with Song also did not end with a single moment in the negotiations. Han Jeongsu's 2023 study addresses Seongjong's later requests to Song for military support. The diplomatic agreement and the actual development of policy need to be distinguished. This interpretation can be found in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11667101\"\u003eabstract of the study on the construction of fortresses in the Six Prefectures of Gangdong\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#why-did-seongjong-and-seo-hui-disagree-on-when-to-establish-diplomatic-relations\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"why-did-seongjong-and-seo-hui-disagree-on-when-to-establish-diplomatic-relations\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhy did Seongjong and Seo Hui disagree on when to establish diplomatic relations?\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe two men differed over when to send envoys to the Khitan. Seo Hui recommended carrying out diplomatic formalities after securing additional territory. Seongjong wanted to establish relations quickly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records Seongjong's words as follows.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cblockquote\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIf we do not establish diplomatic relations for a long time, I fear there will be trouble later.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeongjong ultimately sent Pak Yangyu to the Khitan. Seo Hui's recommendation can be read as a judgment that gave priority to securing territory first. Seongjong's decision can be interpreted as giving priority to the risks caused by delaying relations. This comparison is based on \u003ca href=\"https://db.history.go.kr/id/kr_094r_0010_0010_0040\"\u003ethe relevant record in the 『Goryeosa』\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis difference shows that policy choices remained even after the negotiations. Even after an agreement was reached, the sequence of securing territory and conducting diplomatic formalities remained a separate issue. Differences of judgment within the court continued during the implementation of the agreement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#the-relationship-between-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-and-later-khitan-wars\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"the-relationship-between-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-and-later-khitan-wars\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eThe relationship between the Six Prefectures of Gangdong and later Khitan wars\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Six Prefectures of Gangdong became defensive strongholds against later Khitan invasions. At the same time, their possession again became a source of dispute between the two countries. The agreement of 993 did not guarantee lasting peace.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Khitan invaded again in 1010 and 1018. The third invasion began in 1018. The Battle of Gwiju took place the following year, in 1019. The two years can be distinguished in \u003ca href=\"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/kc/printViewPopup.do?levelId=kc_i200400\"\u003eOur History Net’s “Battle of Gwiju”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#records-and-interpretations\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"records-and-interpretations\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eRecords and interpretations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDescriptions in historical records must be distinguished from explanations by later researchers. The details of the negotiations are conveyed in the Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』. Assessments of the invasion's purpose and the negotiations' results involve researchers' analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-the-records-confirm\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-the-records-confirm\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat the records confirm\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe 『Goryeosa』 records the discussion of territorial cession and Seo Hui's counterarguments. The exchange with So Sonnyeong is followed by accounts of sending envoys and building fortresses. The sequence of the record alone makes it possible to distinguish the negotiations from the subsequent measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#widely-used-explanations\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"widely-used-explanations\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWidely used explanations\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe National Institute of Korean History's explanations connect the Khitan effort to contain Song with Goryeo's northern expansion. They also treat Goryeo's military resistance as part of the background to the negotiations. This approach does not explain the entire process solely through Seo Hui's eloquence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#areas-emphasized-differently-in-research\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"areas-emphasized-differently-in-research\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eAreas emphasized differently in research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies differ in the scope within which they assess the negotiations' results. Han Jeongsu's 2023 study points to differences between Seo Hui's fortress construction and Seongjong's policies. Kwon Yongcheol's 2024 study emphasizes the formation of a Khitan-centered international order.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the latter perspective, the Khitan also achieved some of their diplomatic goals. This interpretation can be explained alongside Goryeo's territorial gains. The argument is presented in the \u003ca href=\"https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/landing/article.kci?arti_id=ART003071929\"\u003eabstract of “A Further Review of the Background to the Khitan’s First Invasion of Goryeo”\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#figures-that-are-difficult-to-confirm\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"figures-that-are-difficult-to-confirm\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFigures that are difficult to confirm\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe figure of 800,000 Khitan troops is difficult to establish as the actual number mobilized. In the 『Goryeosa』, it appears as a number invoked by So Sonnyeong as a threat. The 『New History of Korea』 also describes it as a label rather than the actual troop strength.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#what-this-event-means-for-understanding-it-today\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"what-this-event-means-for-understanding-it-today\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhat this event means for understanding it today\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis event shows that ending a war and establishing territorial control were different stages. The conditions gained through negotiations had to be maintained through fortress construction and defense. Distinguishing them as follows makes the event's causal relationships clear.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Battle of Anyongjin was a military response that stopped the Khitan army's advance.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSeo Hui's negotiations arranged the withdrawal and diplomatic relations.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe development of the Six Prefectures of Gangdong was the process of strengthening regional control after the agreement.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThe Battle of Gwiju was a separate battle commanded by Gang Gamchan in 1019.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#frequently-asked-questions\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"frequently-asked-questions\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eFrequently asked questions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#when-did-seo-huis-diplomatic-negotiations-take-place\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"when-did-seo-huis-diplomatic-negotiations-take-place\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWhen did Seo Hui's diplomatic negotiations take place?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey took place in 993, the 12th year of Goryeo's King Seongjong. They occurred during the process of ending the first Khitan invasion. The exact date in the solar calendar cannot be confirmed from the records reviewed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-seo-hui-defeat-the-khitan-without-fighting\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-seo-hui-defeat-the-khitan-without-fighting\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid Seo Hui defeat the Khitan without fighting?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGoryeo and Khitan forces fought before the negotiations. In particular, the successful defense of Anyongjin provided the background for the negotiations. Military activity also followed the negotiations as Goryeo secured territory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-the-khitan-simply-hand-over-six-territories-they-had-governed-as-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-the-khitan-simply-hand-over-six-territories-they-had-governed-as-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid the Khitan simply hand over six territories they had governed as the Six Prefectures of Gangdong?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is difficult to regard this as the direct transfer of six fully established administrative districts. Jurchen forces were based along the lower Yalu River. Goryeo strengthened its control through fortress construction and development after the negotiations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#did-the-negotiations-succeed-solely-because-of-the-claim-to-goguryeo-succession\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"did-the-negotiations-succeed-solely-because-of-the-claim-to-goguryeo-succession\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eDid the negotiations succeed solely because of the claim to Goguryeo succession?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe idea of succession to Goguryeo provided justification for resisting territorial demands. The actual proposal included the Jurchen issue and securing transportation routes. The condition of establishing diplomatic relations with the Khitan also played a role.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#was-the-acquisition-of-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-completed-in-993\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"was-the-acquisition-of-the-six-prefectures-of-gangdong-completed-in-993\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWas the acquisition of the Six Prefectures of Gangdong completed in 993?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e993 was the year when the negotiations laid the foundation for expansion. The Biography of Seo Hui in the 『Goryeosa』 records fortress construction after 994. The year of the negotiations must be distinguished from the process of consolidating the territory.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e\n\u003ca href=\"#were-seo-huis-negotiations-and-the-battle-of-gwiju-the-same-event\" class=\"anchor\" id=\"were-seo-huis-negotiations-and-the-battle-of-gwiju-the-same-event\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eWere Seo Hui's negotiations and the Battle of Gwiju the same event?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThey were different events. Seo Hui's negotiations were diplomatic negotiations in 993. The Battle of Gwiju was fought in 1019 by Goryeo forces led by Gang Gamchan.\u003c/p\u003e\n","tags":["Geopolitics","History of Goryeo","Korean history"],"faqs":[{"question":"When and with whom did Seo Hui conduct his diplomatic negotiations?","answer":"They took place in 993, during the reign of King Seongjong of Goryeo, between Seo Hui and Xiao Sunning of the Khitan. The negotiations brought the Khitan's first invasion under control."},{"question":"Was Seo Hui a civil official or a general?","answer":"Seo Hui was a civil official and diplomat. In 993, he commanded troops as Commander of the Central Army and later helped build fortresses after the negotiations."},{"question":"Why did the Khitan invade Goryeo?","answer":"They aimed to keep Goryeo and Song from growing closer and to establish direct diplomatic relations with Goryeo. Competition over territory and transportation routes around the Yalu River was also a factor."},{"question":"Why did Seo Hui oppose the proposal to cede the territory north of Seogyeong?","answer":"He believed that conceding it on the grounds that it was former Goguryeo territory would make it difficult to prevent further demands from the Khitan. He also judged that a military response remained possible."},{"question":"Did Seo Hui drive back the Khitan through negotiations alone, without fighting?","answer":"Before the negotiations, Goryeo forces repelled a Khitan attack at Anyungjin. Later, military operations also took place to push back Jurchen forces during the process of securing the Six Prefectures of Gangdong."},{"question":"Where were the Six Prefectures of Gangdong located?","answer":"They were Heunghwa, Yongju, Tongju, Cheolju, Gwiju, and Gwakju, east of the lower Yalu River. Gwiju is also written as Guju."},{"question":"Were the Six Prefectures of Gangdong completed immediately after the negotiations in 993?","answer":"The negotiations of 993 laid the foundation for northward expansion. The Biography of Seo Hui in Goryeosa records that fortress construction continued from 994 to 996."},{"question":"What did Goryeo accept in return for the negotiations?","answer":"Goryeo accepted an adjustment in relations that involved establishing diplomatic ties with the Khitan and sending envoys. The use of the Khitan era name was also included among the terms of relations between the two countries."},{"question":"Is it confirmed that the Khitan army had 800,000 troops?","answer":"It is difficult to conclude that this was the actual number of troops. In Goryeosa, it appears as a number cited by Xiao Sunning as a threat, and Sinpyeon Hanguksa also explains it as a designation."},{"question":"How were Seo Hui's negotiations different from the Battle of Gwiju?","answer":"Seo Hui's negotiations took place during the Khitan's first invasion in 993. The Battle of Gwiju was a battle in which Goryeo forces led by Gang Gamchan defeated the third invasion in 1019."}],"sources":[{"url":"https://db.history.go.kr/id/kr_094r_0010_0010_0040","title":"National Institute of Korean History's Korean History Database, Goryeosa, Volume 94, Biography of Seo Hui","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/tg/view.do?levelId=tg_002_1060\u0026treeId=0200","title":"Our History Net Textbook Glossary, Six Prefectures of Gangdong","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/nh/view.do?levelId=nh_015_0030_0030","title":"Our History Net, New History of Korea, The Khitan Invasions and Resistance Against Them: The First Invasion","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?levelId=hm_048_0020","title":"Our History Net, Korean History Through Primary Sources, Seo Hui's Diplomatic Negotiations","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_n202300","title":"Our History Net, Chronology of Korean History, Seo Hui","type":"source"},{"url":"https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0028321","title":"Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, Seo Hui","type":"source"},{"url":"https://contents.history.go.kr/front/kc/printViewPopup.do?levelId=kc_i200400","title":"Our History Net, Chronology of Korean History, Great Victory at Gwiju","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.dbpia.co.kr/journal/articleDetail?nodeId=NODE11667101","title":"Han Jeong-su, A Historiographical Review of Seo Hui's Understanding of the Goryeo-Khitan War in the Early Goryeo Period and the Construction of Fortifications in the Six Prefectures of Gangdong, Sahak Yeongu 152, 2023, public abstract","type":"source"},{"url":"https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/landing/article.kci?arti_id=ART003071929","title":"Kwon Yong-cheol, Further Review of the Background to the Khitan's First Invasion of Goryeo: The Road to a Khitan-Centered International Order, Haklim 53, 2024, public abstract","type":"source"}],"images":[{"id":1490,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjE3MTcsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--4418ffb2f853caae114b6174150109cd4cbab593/ai-52ce8945.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"열린 천막 안에서 고려와 거란 사절단이 지도를 펼친 탁자를 사이에 두고 마주 앉아 있다.","caption":"서희의 담판은 거란군의 철군을 이끌고 압록강 동쪽 진출의 기반을 마련했다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Goryeo and Khitan delegations sit across a map-covered table in an open tent, with mounted troops beyond.","caption":"Seo Hui’s negotiations secured a Khitan withdrawal and laid the groundwork for expansion east of the Yalu River.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"開放された天幕の中で、高麗と契丹の使節団が地図を広げた卓を挟んで向かい合う。","caption":"徐熙の交渉は契丹軍の撤退を促し、鴨緑江東岸への進出の足がかりとなった。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Delegaciones de Goryeo y Kitán se sientan frente a frente ante una mesa con mapas, bajo una tienda abierta.","caption":"La negociación de Seo Hui logró la retirada kitán y sentó las bases para avanzar al este del río Yalu.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Utusan Goryeo dan Khitan duduk berhadapan di meja berpeta dalam tenda terbuka, dengan pasukan berkuda di luar.","caption":"Perundingan Seo Hui mendorong mundurnya pasukan Khitan dan membuka jalan ke wilayah timur Sungai Yalu.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Delegações de Goryeo e Khitan sentam-se frente a frente diante de uma mesa com mapas, numa tenda aberta.","caption":"A negociação de Seo Hui garantiu a retirada khitan e abriu caminho para o avanço a leste do rio Yalu.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"敞開的營帳內，高麗與契丹使團隔著鋪有地圖的桌子對坐，帳外可見騎兵。","caption":"徐熙的談判促使契丹撤軍，並為向鴨綠江以東拓展奠定基礎。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Gesandte aus Goryeo und dem Khitan-Reich sitzen sich in einem offenen Zelt an einem Tisch mit Karten gegenüber.","caption":"Seo Huis Verhandlungen bewirkten den Rückzug der Khitan und ebneten den Weg nach Osten über den Yalu hinaus.","description":null}}},{"id":1491,"url":"https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6MjE3MjMsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--11956218979d3b759a009020cf935b3fa6a69a84/ai-c36fec3c.webp","is_representative":false,"generation_method":"ai_semi","license":"ai_generated","mime_type":"image/webp","width":1536,"height":1024,"translations":{"ko":{"alt":"강가 언덕에서 일꾼들이 성벽을 쌓고 길을 재며 짐을 실은 말들이 오르는 역사화","caption":"강동 6주의 확보는 994년 이후 축성과 지역 지배 강화로 이어졌다.","description":null},"en":{"alt":"Workers build a fortress above a river as surveyors mark a road and packhorses carry supplies","caption":"Securing the Six Garrisons of Gangdong required fortification and stronger local control after 994.","description":null},"ja":{"alt":"川沿いの丘で城壁を築く作業員、道を測る人々、荷を運ぶ馬を描いた歴史画","caption":"江東六州の確保には、994年以降の築城と地域支配の強化が続いた。","description":null},"es":{"alt":"Trabajadores levantan una fortaleza junto al río mientras otros trazan un camino y caballos llevan provisiones","caption":"Asegurar las Seis Guarniciones de Gangdong exigió fortificar y reforzar el control regional después de 994.","description":null},"id":{"alt":"Pekerja membangun benteng di tepi sungai, sementara jalan diukur dan kuda pengangkut membawa perbekalan","caption":"Penguasaan Enam Garnisun Gangdong diikuti pembangunan benteng dan penguatan kendali wilayah setelah 994.","description":null},"pt":{"alt":"Trabalhadores erguem uma fortaleza à beira do rio enquanto outros demarcam uma estrada e cavalos levam suprimentos","caption":"A consolidação das Seis Guarnições de Gangdong exigiu fortificações e maior controle regional após 994.","description":null},"zh-hant":{"alt":"河畔山坡上，工匠修築城牆，測量者標定道路，馱馬運送補給","caption":"江東六州的鞏固有賴於994年後的築城與地方統治強化。","description":null},"de":{"alt":"Arbeiter errichten eine Festung am Fluss, während Vermesser einen Weg abstecken und Packpferde Vorräte tragen","caption":"Die Sicherung der sechs Garnisonen von Gangdong erforderte nach 994 Festungsbau und stärkere regionale Kontrolle.","description":null}}}],"published_at":"2026-09-24T23:34:18+09:00","updated_at":"2026-09-24T23:34:18+09:00","license":"cc_by","translation_status":"reviewed","available_locales":["ko","en","ja","es"],"data_locales":["ko","en","ja","es","id","pt","zh-hant","de"],"url":"https://injoys.com/en/articles/seo-hui-993-diplomacy-gangdong-six-prefectures"}