Korean Provisional Government Moves and Army Formation ====================================================== After leaving Shanghai in 1932, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea continued organizing its government and planning the formation of an army even as it sought refuge. It established the General Headquarters of the Korean Liberation Army in Chongqing in 1940, and troop recruitment and unit expansion continued afterward. - After leaving Shanghai in 1932, the Provisional Government passed through several cities before settling in Chongqing in September 1940. - Troop recruitment by the military special mission and fundraising by Koreans in the Americas supported the founding of the Korean Liberation Army. - Resisting Chinese demands for command authority, the Provisional Government pursued the army's formation independently. - The issuance of the declaration on September 15, 1940, and the ceremony marking the establishment of the General Headquarters on September 17 were separate events. - At the time of founding, only the General Headquarters was fully organized; actual units and troop strength were expanded afterward. From 1932 to 1940, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea moved from place to place to escape Japanese pursuit and war. Even while in flight, it maintained its organization and plans to form an army. The process that led to the founding of the Korean Liberation Army in Chongqing in 1940 is remembered as a chapter in establishing the military foundations of the independence movement. This article draws on the National Institute of Korean History’s Collection of Materials on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea and other sources, checked in November 2026. What Kind of Organization Was the Provisional Government? The Provisional Government was a governmental organization seeking to establish an independent democratic republic. The March 1 Movement of 1919 led to movements to establish a government both in Korea and abroad. On April 11 that year, the Provisional Government was established in Shanghai (上海). In September, it unified provisional government groups in Korea and abroad. The Provisional Charter of 1919 established democratic republicanism as the principle of governance. The Provisional Government pursued diplomacy and raised funds for independence. Education and the compilation of history were also part of its activities. Forming an army was another task pursued from its earliest days. National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government, Virtual Memorial Why It Left Shanghai The immediate reason for leaving Shanghai in 1932 was Japanese pursuit. Following Yun Bong-gil’s attack, Japan searched for the organization behind it. Provisional Government leaders scattered to avoid arrest. The government offices moved to Hangzhou (杭州). Some leaders, including Kim Gu, took refuge in Jiaxing (嘉興). The government’s location did not always coincide with the residences of all its leaders. After the Sino-Japanese War began in 1937, the expanding front accelerated these moves. The Japanese military’s advance made it difficult to remain at existing bases. Fleeing also meant repeatedly changing the places where government business was conducted. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea” Timeline of the Provisional Government’s Relocations The main government offices moved from Shanghai toward inland China. The table below summarizes the government’s main bases of activity. It does not list individual leaders’ places of refuge or every stop along the way. Period Main Base and Event Source May 1932 Left Shanghai and relocated to Hangzhou Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea” November 1935 Relocated to Zhenjiang (鎭江) Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea” Late 1937 Moved to Changsha (長沙) during the Sino-Japanese War Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea” July 1938 Established government offices in Guangzhou (廣州) Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea” Second half of 1938 Moved to Liuzhou (柳州) to escape Japanese attacks Encyclopedia of Korean Culture; memorial timeline May 1939 Arrived in Qijiang (綦江) Introduction to Volume 10 of Collection of Materials on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea September 1940 Settled in Chongqing (重慶) Encyclopedia of Korean Culture; memorial timeline September 15, 1940 Issued the Korean Liberation Army Declaration in Kim Gu’s name Our History Net, “Korean Liberation Army Declaration” September 17, 1940 Held the inauguration ceremony for General Headquarters in Chongqing National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government, account of the army’s founding Explanatory sources differ on the exact months of some moves. The encyclopedia describes the move to Liuzhou as a departure in October. The memorial’s timeline records the move in November. The table uses the period supported by both sources. How Was the Formation of an Army Prepared During the Relocations? Preparations to found an army began before the government settled in Chongqing. The Provisional Government had been working to train military officers. In 1934, a special class for Koreans was established at Luoyang Military Academy (洛陽軍官學校). In 1937, it established a Military Affairs Commission. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture, “Korean Liberation Army” Organizing an army required personnel and operating funds. Negotiations over operating on Chinese territory were another task. Each area of preparation served a different role, as shown below. Preparatory Task Measures Taken Role in Founding the Army Recruiting personnel Organized a military mission led by Jo Seong-hwan and dispatched it to the Xi’an (西安) area Established a basis for recruiting Koreans in northern China Securing operating funds Informed Koreans in the Americas of the army formation plan and requested support Secured funds to proceed with organizing the army Negotiating with China Requested consent for forming the army and financial support Negotiated the conditions for military activities in China The military mission recruited with help from local Chinese forces. Koreans in the Americas supported the army’s founding through fundraising. However, support from overseas Koreans alone was not enough to cover all military operating costs. National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government, “The Founding and Early Operation of the Korean Liberation Army” Settling in Chongqing and the Decision to Found an Army Independently The turning point was the decision to establish an army independently while negotiations with China were delayed. In May 1940, the Provisional Government submitted a plan to organize an army. The document was titled “Outline Plan for the Organization and Training of the Korean Liberation Army.” The Chinese side sought to place the Korean Liberation Army under Chinese military command. The Provisional Government sought to retain command of its own army. Agreement in principle to the army’s establishment was different from a detailed agreement on its operation. The Provisional Government proceeded with founding the army before negotiations were complete. On September 17, it held the inauguration ceremony for General Headquarters in Chongqing. This did not mean that all matters concerning its relationship with the Chinese authorities had been settled. Questions of command authority and financial support remained after the founding. Introduction to Volume 10 of Collection of Materials on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea The Difference Between Issuing the Declaration and Holding the Inauguration Ceremony The date of the declaration must be distinguished from the date of the inauguration ceremony for General Headquarters. The “Korean Liberation Army Declaration” was issued on September 15, 1940. Kim Gu issued it in his capacity as president of the Provisional Government and chairman of the founding committee. Event Date What the Records Show Issuing the declaration September 15, 1940 Announced the basis for founding the army and its purpose of waging war against Japan Inauguration ceremony for General Headquarters September 17, 1940 Held a ceremony in Chongqing announcing the establishment of General Headquarters The declaration cited the Military Organization Act drawn up by the Provisional Government as its legal basis. It also stated the aim of cooperating with China to wage war against Japan. The document said that General Headquarters would be established on September 17. The original text and commentary are available in the relevant historical source entry on Our History Net. Our History Net, “Korean Liberation Army Declaration” The Organization in Place at the Founding and the Tasks That Followed General Headquarters was the organization fully formed at the time of the founding. Not all combat units were in place from the outset. Recruitment and training continued after the army was established. Ji Cheong-cheon served as commander-in-chief, and Yi Beom-seok as chief of staff. General Headquarters later moved to Xi’an to pursue recruitment. The existing base of the military mission’s activities was used in this process. What the Founding Established What Needed Further Development General Headquarters to command the army Personnel to form actual units A command structure and organizational framework Military training for recruits Formal launch as the Provisional Government’s army Continuing funds for military operations The memorial’s account of the army’s founding explains this gradual organizational development. Units listed in the organizational structure must therefore be distinguished from actual troop strength. The existence of a unit’s name alone is not enough to assess its combat strength. National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government, account of the army’s founding Why Were the Government’s Location and Recruitment Bases Different? Government administration and military recruitment required different kinds of locations. Chongqing was the political base where the Provisional Government settled. Xi’an was a base for military activities well placed for contact with Koreans in northern China. Location Role During This Period Records to Examine Alongside It Chongqing Government administration and the launch of Korean Liberation Army General Headquarters Government documents and records of the inauguration ceremony Xi’an Military mission activities and recruitment after the army’s founding Records of recruitment and the relocation of General Headquarters Korean communities in the Americas Fundraising and financial support for the army’s founding Records concerning support and independence funds This distinction offers one framework for interpreting the history of the relocations. The government’s location alone cannot explain where the independence movement as a whole operated. The army’s founding can be understood as the result of connections between personnel and funding across several regions. Introduction to Volume 10 of Collection of Materials on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea Achievements and Limitations After the Army’s Founding After its founding, the Korean Liberation Army expanded by incorporating other independence movement groups. The Korean Youth Battlefield Mission Corps joined in 1941. In 1942, the headquarters troops of the Korean Volunteer Corps who had remained in Chongqing were incorporated. The Provisional Government declared war on Japan on December 10, 1941. The Korean Liberation Army later cooperated with British forces on the India and Myanmar fronts. Training conducted with the American OSS aimed to prepare for infiltration into Korea. The planned infiltration operation was not carried out because Japan surrendered. Liberation did not guarantee that the government and army could return as organized bodies. The U.S. military government did not recognize the Provisional Government or the Korean Liberation Army. Members of the Korean Liberation Army had to return to Korea as private individuals. Our History Net, “Korean Liberation Army” Records and Interpretation Claims made in contemporary documents should be read separately from explanations in later research. The declaration shows the grounds and objectives stated by those who founded the army. Explanatory sources place the document within the process of negotiation and organizational formation. Facts Confirmed by the Records The declaration cites the Military Organization Act of 1919 as the basis for founding the army. It also mentions permission from Chiang Kai-shek (蔣介石). It sets the goal of waging war against Japan through Korean-Chinese cooperation. Assessments Commonly Presented in Research Commentary The founding of the army is described as an achievement of the Provisional Government’s continuing policy of military organization. The training of military officers and support from overseas Koreans are presented as its background. The expansion of troop strength after the launch of General Headquarters is also treated as a separate process. Points Described Differently by the Sources Accounts give either September 15 or 17 as the founding date. Our History Net’s chronology gives the 15th, based on the issuance of the declaration. The memorial’s account of the army’s founding gives the 17th, when the inauguration ceremony was held. Separating the dates of the two events makes the difference between these accounts clearer. China’s permission also requires a distinction between the scopes of approval. Our History Net’s commentary on the historical source distinguishes permission in principle from formal approval. The wording of the declaration alone cannot be taken to mean that all negotiations had ended. The sources checked here do not provide sufficient grounds to characterize this as a scholarly controversy. Our History Net, commentary on the declaration The Significance of Studying the Relocations Today The history of the relocations shows concretely what enabled the Provisional Government to survive. Beyond the resolve of individuals, government organization and local cooperation played a role. Military activities were connected to financial support from overseas Korean communities. Understanding historic sites also requires distinguishing the functions of different places. Government offices, individuals’ places of refuge, and the venue for the army’s founding ceremony were different spaces. Even sites from the same period reflect different activities. The National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government’s virtual memorial presents related timelines and artifacts together. Memorial’s virtual timeline Frequently Asked Questions Did Preparations to Found the Army Begin Only After Arrival in Chongqing? Preparations to found the army were already underway during the period of relocation. Military officer training and the activities of the military mission came first. General Headquarters was launched in Chongqing on the basis of those preparations. Was the Korean Liberation Army a Large Combat Force from the Outset? General Headquarters was the organization completed at the time of the founding. Recruitment and training to form actual units continued. The founding ceremony and the buildup of combat strength were separate stages. Was Chinese Support Incompatible with the Provisional Government’s Independent Founding of the Army? Securing support and retaining command authority were separate issues. The Provisional Government sought Chinese support while pursuing its own command authority. This is why negotiations for support and the policy of independently founding the army existed side by side. Why Are Jiaxing or Nanjing Added to the Relocation Route? Sources cover both government offices and places where government leaders were active. Kim Gu and others took refuge in Jiaxing. During the Zhenjiang period, several leaders lived in Nanjing (南京). When comparing routes, it is important to check whose or what relocation each route represents. FAQ Q. Why did the Provisional Government leave Shanghai? A. Because Japan intensified its search for and pursuit of those behind Yun Bong-gil's 1932 attack. The government offices moved to Hangzhou, and key officials took refuge in various places. Q. What was the Provisional Government's main relocation route from 1932 to 1940? A. The main relocation route for the government offices was Shanghai, Hangzhou, Zhenjiang, Changsha, Guangzhou, Liuzhou, Qijiang, and Chongqing, in that order. Individuals' places of refuge and intermediate stops may differ from this list. Q. When did the Provisional Government settle in Chongqing? A. The Provisional Government settled in Chongqing in September 1940. The inauguration ceremony for the General Headquarters of the Korean Liberation Army was held that same month. Q. What role did the Special Military Mission play in founding the Korean Liberation Army? A. The Special Military Mission used Xi'an as its base to recruit Koreans in northern China. These activities laid the groundwork for expanding the army's personnel after its founding. Q. How did fundraising by Koreans in the Americas contribute to the army's founding? A. Support from Koreans in the Americas provided funding for efforts to organize the army. However, it was difficult to cover all of the army's operating expenses, so financial support was also requested from the Chinese side. Q. What is the difference between September 15 and September 17, 1940? A. September 15 was the date a declaration was issued in Kim Gu's name. September 17 was the day the inauguration ceremony for the General Headquarters of the Korean Liberation Army was held in Chongqing. Q. Did the Korean Liberation Army have all its personnel and units in place when it was founded? A. The General Headquarters was the organization fully formed at the time of the army's founding. Personnel recruitment, training, and the expansion of units continued afterward. Q. What was the issue in the negotiations with China over the army's founding? A. The issue was who would command the Korean Liberation Army. The Chinese side demanded that it be placed under Chinese military command, while the Provisional Government sought to retain its own command authority. Q. Why did the Korean Liberation Army move to Xi'an after being founded in Chongqing? A. Xi'an was a base of operations for the Special Military Mission. It was also a favorable location for recruitment and propaganda activities targeting Koreans in northern China. Sources - Encyclopedia of Korean Culture: Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea: https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0015017 - National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government: Establishment and Early Operations of the Korean Liberation Army: https://www.nmkpg.go.kr/webzine/story/cn.do?rid=368 - National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net: Declaration of the Korean Liberation Army: https://contents.history.go.kr/front/hm/view.do?levelId=hm_127_0005 - National Institute of Korean History, Our History Net: Korean Liberation Army: https://contents.history.go.kr/mobile/kc/view.do?levelId=kc_o403810 - National Institute of Korean History: Collection of Documents on the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, Volume 10, Korean Liberation Army Ⅰ, Introduction: https://db.history.go.kr/id/ij_010_%241exp - National Memorial of the Korean Provisional Government: Cyber Memorial Hall Timeline and Artifacts: https://www.nmkpg.go.kr/meta/timeline - Encyclopedia of Korean Culture: Korean Liberation Army: https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0005134 Images - Painting of men unpacking trunks and sorting papers in a tiled-roof office beside a canal.: https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6NDAxNTcsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--1840beea54910ecb9a77da1b8714d119be871c5f/ai-811ecfab.webp - Painting of seated attendees facing a desk with documents, with a hillside city beyond open windows: https://injoys.com/rails/active_storage/blobs/proxy/eyJfcmFpbHMiOnsiZGF0YSI6NDAxNjMsInB1ciI6ImJsb2JfaWQifX0=--78a9a15fc4c8fcc0106cbb0ec3a4b0d3003321fc/ai-87d5dd69.webp --- Category: Case Study Source: https://injoys.com/en/articles/korean-provisional-government-1932-1940-relocation-and-army-formation License: cc_by Translation-Status: reviewed